by the people "the exact meaning of the inspired original." No views of expediency are allowed to withstand the invariable operation of this rule. The preliminary revision of the entire New Testament is in the course of publication, being sent forth for criticism among all classes of scholars, who are willing to examine it, and suggest any improvement. No expense has been spared in procuring books or supplying every possible aid for the greatest perfection of the work. This preliminary revision is subjected to careful examination and correction, by a learned committee composed of eminent biblical critics. The society publishes a quarterly journal, giving details of its progress, and a monthly with the revised Scriptures, as they may be ready for public examination. Since its origin it has issued of the Sacred Scripture, 287,800 copies, 48,109,600 pages; of quarterlies, tracts, &c., 380,801 copies, 11,639,204 pages. Total copies, 668,601; total pages, 59,748,804. The receipts have now reached the sum of $45.000 per annum, and are steadily increasing. The library collected for its translators' use numbers more than 4,000 volumes, and comprises some of the rarest works on biblical criticism which can be found in the world. The "Bible Revision Association" was organized in Memphis, Tenn., April 2, 1853. Its location is in Louisville, Ky. It has a board of 30 managers and executive officers. It occupies the southern and southwestern of the United States. It has a membership of about 3,000 persons, and is rapidly extending its operations, in conjunction with the American Bible union, with which it coöperates in the objects of its organization.--When the British and foreign Bible society was formed, the Bible was printed and circulated in 50 tongues; now it is printed and circulated in 166 versions, and in nearly all of these the British and foreign Bible society aided directly or indirectly, and in many of them the American Bible society had an important share. Ninety-nine new versions have been made, including 14 European languages, 15 Asiatic, 11 Polynesian, 11 African, and 7 American. Many of these were first made written languages by the societies. By the efforts of Bible societies, since 1804, have been circulated about 48 millions of copies of the Bible, either entire or in part.-But the history of Bible societies would be incomplete without mention of the controversy with regard to the Apocrypha, in which they were involved from about 1811, and which was not finally settled until 1827. The one idea of Bible societies, the circulation of the Scriptures without note or comment, had, to a certain extent, engaged all parties indiscriminately, and especially all parties of the reformation. The Catholic church had a different canon of Scripture from the Protestant. On the continent various causes had conspired to separate the Protestants less in this matter from the Catholics than their brethren in Great Britain.. Consequently, on the continent, the Catholic canon was in use

among Protestants. At first, the London society had connived at this difference of sentiment, or at least had not allowed itself to interfere with its free exercise. Thus the German auxiliary societies had from the outset purchased for circulation the Canstein Bible, in which the apocryphal_books were intermingled with the canonical (Protestant). A feeling began to be manifest on this subject, perhaps, first, and certainly with greatest violence, in Scotland. The parent society decided, therefore, to request its auxiliaries to leave out the Apocrypha (1811). This request produced some feeling, and it was rescinded (1813). The apocryphal war was thus fairly commenced; for the passing and subsequent rescinding of the resolution of 1811 brought the parties into position. The inspiration of the apocryphal books was discussed, and the custom of the Protestant church cited, which had translated the Apocrypha, and even in the establishment appointed it "to be read in the churches." While the general sentiment was in favor of the non-inspiration of the apocryphal books, one party insisted on the propriety of their circulation, on the ground that the catalogue of the canon was not inspired, and that even the Protestant canon itself was not an article of faith, but might contain uninspired books. On the other hand, the anti-apocry phal party rigidly defined the difference between the canonical and apocryphal books, designating the apocryphal as "far below the level of many human writings, full of falsehoods, errors, superstitions, and contradictions, and the more dangerous for assuming to be a Divine revelation." The Scotch party was violent, the continental unyielding. The publication of the Catholic Bible in Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, in 1819, with the cooperation of the society, added fresh fuel to the flames. It was thought by the Edinburgh society a violation of the act of 1813. It was urged that to publish a Bible in which the apocryphal books were made canonical, was worse than merely to publish them as apocryphal at the end of the Old Testament canon. The London society, on a revision of its course, decided it to be erroneous, and resolved, Aug. 19, 1822, that the moneys of the society should henceforth be used only in printing the canonical books, and that if the auxiliaries published the Apocrypha, they should do it at their own expense. When, in accordance with this act, Leander Van Ess asked aid in publishing his Bible, and promised to include the Apocrypha at his own expense, the society appropriated £500 for the purpose (Sept. 24, 1824). The anti-apocryphal party procured the rescinding of the act the following December, on the ground that the apocryphal books were still undistinguished from the canonical, and that, therefore, although the society's money was not used to publish them, they nevertheless had the apparent sanction of inspiration by the good company in which the society allowed

them to be put, by consenting to have them intermingled with the inspired books. The society, in rescinding the above act of appropriation, advanced only one step further in the apocryphal reform. It had, in the act of rescinding, declared that the money of the society might be applied to aid those editions of the Bible in which the apocryphal books were printed at the end of the canon. The anti-apocryphal party had already achieved too many victories to be satisfied with so moderate ground. The Edinburgh society now protested (Jan. 17, 1825) against this compromise of Protestantism, and procured, in the following February, a rescinding act which swept the records of the London society of all former acts on the subject. The matter stood now where it had before 1811, but the anti-apocryphal sentiment was conscious of its strength, and now initiated positive proceedings. A two years' contest followed, in which the ground was all reviewed, and the end of which was a resolution of the London society (May 3, 1827), that no association or individual circulating the apocryphal books should receive aid from the society, that none but bound books should be distributed to the auxiliaries, and that the auxiliaries should circulate them as received, and that all societies printing the apocryphal books should place the amount granted them for Bibles at the disposal of the parent society. Thus ended the controversy, a controversy which threatened for a time to split the parent society itself, and which did result in the secession of many auxiliaries on the continent. Previous to this controversy, the Roman Catholic church had in many instances (especially on the continent) acted with the Protestants. But, as already mentioned, that church had abolished the Bible society of Ratisbon (1817) in the midst of the contest. Meanwhile the London society continued the aid of its funds, under its successive prohibitions in reference to the Apocrypha, to the individual enterprise which still persisted, at Munich, in the circulation of the Bible. Gradually the Roman Catholic church withdrew its favor from an enterprise that refused its aid in the circulation of that which she deemed the canon of Scripture, until, from the cooperation which had characterized the early history of Bible societies, the movement became essentially Protestant. The American Bible society, made up of materials more thoroughly Puritanic and less Lutheran and continental, from the outset, was free from the distractions growing out of this dispute. That society has never published any other than the canonical (Protestant) books; and the only instance in which it has departed (if it be a departure) from the avowed principle of circulating the canonical Scriptures, without note or comment, is in the headings it has given to the chapters. In both the London and American societies the standard English version followed is that of King James.-One thing more remains to be

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY

noticed, and that is the extreme cheapness of the Bible, under the auspices of the American Bible society. A good Bible for family use (the "brevier Bible" of the society) can now be had for 45 cents, while a nonpareil edition costs only 25 cents, and Testaments are as cheap as 6 cents. This is partly the result of the donations the society receives, but more especially of the immense circulation the Bible has under its action attained.

BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY. In the heart of the eastern continent, embraced by 5 seas, the Mediterranean, the Egaan, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Persian gulf, lies a section of the globe which has been the arena of most of the events recorded in Scripture. Here the scene opens in Genesis, here the curtain of the flood falls on the first act, and here, in one of the coast-islands of the gaan, occurs the closing vision of the Apocalypse. On the north, the great Caucasian wall spans the breach between the waters of the Caspian and the Euxine, the desert of salt flanks the eastern border from the Caspian to the Persian gulf, and the arid sands of Arabia complete the enclosure on the south. The territory thus bounded was unequalled in the fertility of its soil, the variety of its products, the facilities of its commerce, and the salubrity of its climate. It was fit to be the cradle of the race. A single mountainous system, the Taurus, cuts centrally across the entire area, dividing it into 2 nearly equal northern and southern portions. This chain, bifurcating in Ararat, sends one of its spurs to the head of the Persian gulf, and unites the other with the great Persian range. Dividing similarly at the head of the Mediterranean, it sends the southern or Libanus spur along the eastern shores of that sea, and distributes the other into those scattered and broken peaks which like sentries flank the semicircular coast of the Anatolian peninsula, until they meet the Caucasus on the north. Thus this whole sea-girt section is one vast water-shed with two culminating points, Ararat in the north and Lebanon in the south. It is well watered by large and numerous rivers, emptying into all these encircling seas, among which are prominent the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Barada, the Orontes, and the Jordan. Add to the territory thus described, a narrow strip on the southern shores of the Mediterranean, and the peninsulas of Italy and the Peloponnesus on the northern, and the area of biblical geography is complete. In this expanse are included Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Chaldea in the east, the extensive regions of Asia Minor and Armenia in the north, Greece and Italy in the west, and the peninsula of Sinai and Egypt in the south, while Palestine glitters in the centre of the whole. The more specific geographical features of these several kingdoms will be found under their appropriate heads. The study of biblical geography has a repulsive feature to the student in the almost universal changes of the names of localities in modern works, and the

consequent inability to identify many places possessing the profoundest interest and importance. Much has lately been done by the researches of travellers in the East, made in the special interest of Bible history. We may here mention with the highest encomium, the "Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the adjacent regions," by that indefatigable scholar, Dr. Robinson of this country; as also an admirable treatise, "Sinai and Palestine," by the Rev. Mr. Stanley, canon of Canterbury, England. Mr. Stanley well remarks in his prefatory advertisement: "Much has been written, and still remains to be written, both on the history and geography of the chosen people. But there have been comparatively few attempts to illustrate the relation in which each stands to the other." The influence of the geography of a country on its history, its poetry, and even its philosophy and religion, is very great, and it is not easy to overrate the value of such works as those above mentioned in illustrating the narrative and teachings of the Bible.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Gr. ßißiov, a book, and ypapo, to describe), literally signifies the description of books. Among the Greeks the term BBAoypapia signified only the writing or transcription of books; and a bibliographer with them was a writer of books, in the sense of a copyist. The French term Bibliographie was long used to signify only an acquaintance with ancient writings, and with the art of deciphering them. In its modern and more extended sense, bibliography may be defined to be the science or knowledge of books, in regard to the materials of which they are composed, their different degrees of rarity, curiosity, reputed and real value, the subjects discussed by their respective authors, and the rank which they ought to hold in the classification of a library. It is therefore divided into 2 branches, the first of which has reference to the contents of books, and may be called, for want of a better phrase, intellectual bibliography; the second treats of their external character, the history of particular copies, &c., and may be termed material bibliography. The object of the first kind is to acquaint literary men with the most valuable books in every department of study, either by means of catalogues raisonnés simply, or by similar or alphabetical catalogues, accompanied by critical remarks. Considered as a distinct science, bibliography has been, and still is, cultivated most extensively in France, Germany, and Italy. This is owing, in a great degree, to the riches of the large public libraries of those countries, which are freely accessible to all, the great number of fine private collections, and the familiarity of their scholars and literary men with books of all ages and nations. To the researches of Barbier and Brunet, Ebert and Ersch, Tiraboschi and Gamba, the history of literature is deeply indebted. Great Britain can indeed boast of its rich public and private collections; but the use of them is limited, and hence the science has, until within comparative

ly a recent period, received less attention there than upon the continent. The labors of Lowndes, Horne, Dibdin, and Watt, have of late years done much to promote its cultivation. In this country the science has been very naturally neglected. But the general diffusion of knowledge and wealth has led to the formation and rapid increase of public and private libraries; bibliography is therefore receiving increased attention, and the importance of its claims as a practical science is frequently and successfully urged by our leading educational and lite rary men. It is the fault of many of the votaries of bibliography, especially in France, that they have exaggerated the value of their favorite pursuit far beyond that rank to which it is fairly entitled in the scale of human knowledge; and Peignot, Achard, and others, have represented it as the most extensive, and even universal, of all sciences. Nothing certainly can be more absurd than to view it in this light, merely because it treats of books, and because books are the vehicles of all sorts of knowledge. Yet this is the only foundation that can be discovered for these extravagant representations, which tend, as in all other cases of exaggerated pretension, to bring ridicule upon a subject which cannot be regarded otherwise than highly important, when simply and correctly defined. Conformably to what has now been stated, it is the province of the bibliographer to be acquainted with the inaterials of which books are composed, and their different forms, the number of pages, the typographical character, the number and description of the plates, the completeness, correctness, and all the other external peculiarities or distinctions of an edition. He knows not only the treatises that have been written on any particular topic, their comparative value, and the various editions of books, but also in what important respects one edition differs from another; when and from what cause omissions have been made, deficiencies supplied, errors corrected, and additions subjoined. When books have been published anonymously, or pseudonymously, he indicates the real name of the concealed author; and with regard to the rarity of books, he is acquainted with all the causes which have contributed to render them scarce. Finally, as a library destitute of arrangement is a "chaos and not a cosmos," he disposes the books which it comprises, in such an order as will present an agreeable appearance to the eye; and in compiling a catalogue, he assigns to them that place which they ought to hold in the system of classification adopted for arranging a public or private collection of books. Such are the legitimate duties of the bibliographer, requiring a variety and extent of knowledge, seldom if ever possessed by a single individual. Hence different writers have discussed particular topics of bibliography; and from their united labors can be collected the multifarious information requisite to constitute the well-informed bibliographer.

A collection of

all the works belonging to the various departments of this science, including general and special bibliography, would, it has been estimated, exceed 20,000 volumes. The more important of these are indicated or described in Namur's Bibliographie paléographico-diplomatico-bibliographique générale, 2 vols. 8vo. Liége, 1838; also in Peignot's Repertoire bibliographique universel, 8vo. Paris, 1812; Horne's "Introduction to the study of Bibliography," vol. ii. 8vo. Lond. 1814; Bohn's "General Catalogue, vol i., 8vo. Lond. 1847; and Petzholdt's Anzeiger für Literatur der Bibliothekwissenschaft, an important German periodical commenced in 1840. For information upon certain points connected with bibliography, the reader is referred to the articles Book, BOOK-SELLING, BOOK-BINDING, CATALOGUES, DIPLOMATICS, ENGRAVING, LIBRARIES, MANUSCRIPTS, PAPER, PRINTING, and WRI

TING.

The following elementary works treat generally upon all matters appertaining to this science. Although not very recent, and a part of them not well digested, they, nevertheless, contain much curious as well as useful information: ACHARD (C. F.) Cours élémentaire de Bibliographic. 8 vols., 8vo. Marseille, 1806-7.

BOULARD (S.) Traité élémentaire de Bibliographie. 8vo. Paris, 1806.

DENIS (M.) Einleitung in die Bücherkunde. 2d ed. 2 vols. 4to. Wien, 1795-6.

DIBDIN (T. F.) Bibliographical Decameron. 8 vols. royal Svo. London, 1817.

HORNE (T. H.) An Introduction to the Study of Bibliography. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1814.

PEIGNOT (G.) Dictionnaire Raisonné de Bibliologie (with supplement). 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1802-4. MORTILLARO (V.) Studio Bibliografico. 2d ed. Svo. Palermo, 1832.

2. MANUSCRIPTS AND DIPLOMATICS. DELANDINE (A. F.) Manuscrits de la Bibliothèque de Lyon. Précédés d' un Essai sur les MSS. en général, &c. 8 vols.

8vo. Lyon, 1812 Zur Handschriftenkunde. 2 vols. 8vo,

HUMPHREYS (H. N.) The Illuminated Books of the Middle Leipzig, 1825-27.

Ages: An Account of the Development and Progress of the Art of Illumination, as a distinct branch of Pictorial Ornamentation, &c. Illustrated by a series of examples, of the size of the originals, by Owen Jones. Folio. London, 1849.

A splendid and costly work. MABILLON (J.) De Re Diplomatica Libri Sex, cum Supplemento. 3d ed. 2 vols. folio (fine plates). Neapoli, 1789. MONTFAUCON (DOM B. DE) Bibliotheca Bibliothecarum Manuscriptorum Nova. 2 vols. folio. Paris, 1789. NOUVEAU Traité de Diplomatique. Par deux Religieux Bénédictins, de le Cong, de S. Maur, (MM. Toustain and Tassin.) 6 vols. 4to. Paris, 1750.

VAINES (DOM DE) Dictionnaire Raisonné de Diplomatique.

2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1774.

A compendium of the larger and more costly works of Mabillon, Monfaucon, Maffei, Toustain, Tassin, &c.

3. MONOGRAMS AND AUTOGRAPHS. BRULLIOT (F.) Dictionnaire des Monogrammes, Marques figurées, Lettres initiales, Noms abrégés, etc., avec les quels les Peintres, Dessinateurs, Graveurs et Sculpteurs ont désigné leurs Noms. 2d ed. 8 parts, 4to. Munich, 1882-4.

Ouvrage très important."-Brunet. FONTAINE (P. J.) Des Collections des Autographes et do I'Utilité qu'on peut en retirer. Svo. Paris, 1834. FONTAINE (P. J.) Manuel de l'Amateur des Autographes. 8vo. Paris, 1896.

PEIGNOT (G.) Recherches historiques et bibliographiques sur les Autographes et sur l'Autographie. Svo. Dijon,

1836.

4. MATERIALS FOR WRITING OR PRINTING. KOOPS (M.) Historical Account of the Substances which have been used to describe events and to convey ideas, from the earliest date to the invention of paper. Svo. London, 1801.

I.-The Origin and Progress of Writing, Manuscripts and Diplomatics, Monograms and Autographs, Materials for Writing or Printing, Engraving on Wood, Copper, Stone, &c. The subjects belonging to this section have furnished topics for much elaborate research, and some of them for speculations and disputes not yet brought to any satisfactory conclusion. Our object is simply to indicate the inquiries which belong to different departments of bibliography, with some of the best guides to information upon each, leaving the discussion of the topics themselves for separate articles.

1. WRITING.

ASTLE (THOS.) The Origin and Progress of Writing, as well hieroglyphic as elementary. A new edition of this important work has been published by Rowe, in 1 vol. royal quarto. Illustrated by Engravings. 2d ed. 4to. London, 1803.

CHAMPOLLION-FIGEAC (J. J.) Précis du Système Hiéroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens, avec planches. 2d ed. royal 8vo. Paris, 1828.

FORTIA D'URBAN. Essai sur l'Origine de l'Ecriture, sur son Introduction dans la Grèce, et son Usage, jusqu'au Temps d'Homère. 8vo. Paris, 1832.

FRY (E.) Pantographia; containing accurate copies of all the known alphabets in the world, together with an Eng

(with plates.) 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1884.

PEIGNOT (G.) Essai sur l'Histoire du Parchemin et du Vélin. 8vo. Paris, 1812.

TAYLOR (ISAAC.) History of the Transmission of Ancient Books to modern times (containing the history of manuscripts, an account of the materials of ancient books, instruments of writing, inks, &c.) Svo. London, 1827. WEHRS (G. F.) Von Papier, &c. (With supplement.) 3 vols. 8vo. Halle and Hanover, 1789-90.

5. ENGRAVING ON COPPER, WOOD, STONE, &c. BARTSCH (A. DE.) Le Peintre Graveur. 21 vols. 8vo. Vienne, Degen, et Mechetti, 1803-21. BRYAN (M.) A Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Painters and Engravers; with the Ciphers, Monograms, and Marks used by each Engraver. (New ed. revised and enlarged by Stanley.) Royal 8vo. London, 1849. ENGELMANN (G.) Traité theoretique et pratique de Lithographie. 8d ed. 4to. Paris, 1889. HEINECKEN (M. LE BARON.) Idée général d'une Collection complète d'Estampes, avec une Dissertation sur l'Origine de la Gravure. 8vo. Leipsic, 1771.

A valuable work, illustrated with 28 fine engravings. FIELDING (T. II.) The Art of Engraving; being an historical and distinct account of the various styles now praetised, with instructions as to the various modes of opera tion, &c. Royal Svo. London, 1840. JACKSON (J.) A Treatise on Wood Engraving, historical and practical. Royal Svo. London, 1839. With upward of 300 illustrations.

The author in the 3d chapter discusses the claims of Gutenberg and Coster to the honor of the invention of printing, supporting those of the

former.

NAGLER (Dr. G. K.) Neues Allgemeines Künstler-Lexicon, 22 vols. 8vo. München, 1835–52.

The best and most extensive work of the kind extant, being a biographical dictionary, with critical notices, of the works of painters, sculptors, engravers, designers, lithographers, &c.

OTTLEY (W. Y.) History of Engraving upon Copper and

Wood, with an Account of Engravers and their Works. 2 vols. royal 4to. London, 1816. SOTHEBY (S. L.) Principia Typographica. The BlockBooks issued in Holland, Flanders, and Germany, during the 15th century. 8 vols. 4to. London, 1858. SPOONER (S.) A Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Painters, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects, with the Monograms, Ciphers, and Marks used by Distinguished Artists to Certify their Works. 8vo. New York, 1853.

II.-The Origin and Progress of Printing, and Early Printed Books.

The history of the origin of this most important of all human inventions is enveloped in mystery, the most widely opposite opinions upon the subject being still entertained. Although within twenty years from its discovery it was spread all over Europe, commemorating all other inventions, and handing down to posterity every important event, it has unfortunately failed to record in decisive terms the name of its own inventor. To determine this, as well as the place where the discovery was made, has given employment to the studies and researches of the most learned men in Europe during the last 2 centuries. We can only point out some of the most important publications on the subject, together with manuals and dictionaries of the art, and such works as are particularly descriptive of early printed books.

AMES (J.) Typographical Antiquities; being an Historical Ac count of Printing in England, Scotland, and Ireland. 2d edition, enlarged by Herbert. 3 vols. 4to. London, 1785–90.

A third and very costly edition was prepared by Dibdin, greatly enlarged, with copious notes, &c. 4 vols. 4to. London, 1810-'19. AUDIFFREDI (J. B.) Catalogus Historico-Criticus Romanarum Editionum Sæculi XV. Also, Specimen HistoricoCriticum Editionum Italicarum Sæculi XV. 2 vols. 4to. Romæ, 1788-'94.

BANDINI (A. M.) De Florentina Juntarum Typographia. 2 vols. 8vo. Lucca, 1791. COTTON (HENRY.) Typographical Gazetteer. 3d edition,

8vo. Oxford, 1852.

DAUNOU (P. C. F.) Analyse des Opinions diverses sur l'Ori-
gine de l'Imprimerie. 8vo. Paris, 1803.
DIEDIN (T. F. Bibliotheca Spenceriana; or, a Descriptive
Catalogue of Early Printed Books, and of many important

first editions in the library of Earl Spencer. 4 vols. royal

Svo. London, 1814-15.

This library contained 45,000 volumes, mostly of rare and costly works. FALKENSTEIN (KARL.) Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst. 4to. Leipzig, 1840.

GRESWELL (W. P.) Annals of Parisian Typography. Sro.
London, 1818. Also, View of the Early Parisian Greek
Press. 2 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1833.
HAIN (L.) Repertorium Bibliographicum. 4 vols. 8vo.
Stuttgart, 1826-'38.

Containing 16,299 articles describing with great accuracy all the edifions of the 15th century known to the author. HANSARD (T. C.) Typographia: An Historical Sketch of the Origin and Progress of Printing. Royal 8vo. London, 1825. Also, History of the Art of Printing, Copperplate Printing, Type Founding, and Lithographic Printing. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1840.

HODGSON (THos.) An Essay on the Origin and Progress of Stereotype Printing, including a description of the various processes. 8vo. Newcastle, 1820.

Only 306 copies printed." JOHNSON (J.) Typographia, or the Printer's Instructor. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1824.

LAIRE (F. X.) Index Librorum ab Inventa Typographia ad annum 1500 (with a Supplement). 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1791-2.

MAITTAIRE (M.) Annales Typographici ad annum 1664, cum Supplemento Denisii. 7 vols. (or 11 when the parts are bound up separately), 4to. Hag. Com. et Viennæ, 1719-89. MEERMAN (G.) Origines Typographica. 2 vols. 4to. Hag. Com. 1765.

The great work in support of the pretensions of Lawrence Coster as the inventor, and of Harlem as the birth-place of the art of printing. PANZER (G. W.) Annales Typographici ad annum 1536. 11 vols. 4to. Norimb. 1798-1503.

The most extensive work extant on the productions of the 15th century, RENOUARD (A. A.) Annales de l'Imprimerie des Alde. 2d edition, 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1825. Also, Annales de l'Imprimerie des Estienne. 2 parts, 8vo. Paris, 1537-S.

SANTANDER (M. DE LA SERNA.) An Historical Essay on tho Origin of Printing. Translated from the French. 8vo. Newcastle, Hodgson, 1819.

SAVAGE (W.) Dictionary of the Art of Printing. Thick 8vo. London, 1841.

STOWER (C.) The Printer's Grammar (with plates). 8vo. London, 1808.

THOMAS (ISAIAH.) History of Printing in America, with Biographies of Printers, and an Account of Newspapers, &c. 2 vols. 8vo. Worcester, 1810.

TIMPERLY (C. H.) Encyclopædia of Literary and Typographical Anecdote. 2d edition, thick royal 8vo. London, WILLETT (R.) A Memoir on the Origin of Printing. 8vo. Newcastle, 1820, pp. 72.

1842.

One of the objects of bibliography is to indicate those books which, to a greater or less degree, come under this category. With regard to these compilations we may remark, that though in most of them the epithet rare is sometimes applied too vaguely and lavishly, they are nevertheless, as a class, extremely use

ful.

in all cases with precision in regard to rare It is, indeed, exceedingly difficult to speak books, and hence, perhaps, impossible to compile a work of this kind which shall not sometimes mislead those who consult it. A distinction should always be made between the terms rare and precious, which, while at first they appear to mean the same thing, are yet essentially different. A book may be rare because it is with difficulty to be procured, and hence highly valued by amateurs who desire the exclusive possession of it, regardless of cost. On the other hand, books may be precious, and to be obtained only at a high price, without being chitectural engravings published by Piranesi Such are the splendid collections of arand others; the collections called galleries and cabinets; the great collections of works on antiquities by Gronovius, Grævius, Montfaucon, Muratori, and others. The following may be noticed as among the principal bibliographical works under this head, in addition to Audiffredi, Dibdin, Hain, Laire, Maittaire, and Panzer, described under the previous head.

rare.

BAUER (J. J.) Bibliotheca Librorum Rariorum Universalis. (With supplement.) 7 vols. 8vo. Norimb. 1770-91. CLEMENT (DAVID.) Bibliothèque Curieuse; ou Catalogue Raisonné des Livres rares, et difficiles à trouver. 9 vols. 4to. Göttingen and Leipsic, 1750-60.

Comes down no further than to the letter H.

DIBDIN (T. F.) A Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (containing a fund of information in regard to manuscripts, rare books, &c.). 8 vols. royal Svo. London, 1821.

DIBDIN (T. F.) A Bibliographical and Picturesque Tour in the counties of England and in Scotland. 2 vols. royal 8vo. London, 1838.

FOURNIER (F. J.) Nouveau Dictionnaire portatif de Bibliographie; contenant plus de vingt-trois mille Articles do Livres rares, curieux, estimés, et recherchés, &c. 2d edition, 8vo. Paris, 1809.

GERDESIUS (D.) Florilegium Historico-Criticum Librorum Rariorum, &c. 3d edition, 8vo. Groninga, 1763. HARTSHORNE (C. H.) Book Rarities of the University of Cambridge. Svo. London, 1829.

OSMONT (J. B. L.) Dictionnaire typographique, historique, et critique des Livres rares, singuliers, estimés, &c. 2 vola Svo. Paris, 1765.