cases in which the passage of bile into the bowels was entirely prevented by the complete closure of the bile duct, and in which, nevertheless, life was prolonged for many months. We must say, however, that the secretion of substances which may, when they are absorbed, and when they accumulate in the blood, be transformed into a poison, ought in some respects to be considered as a depuration. -It has been a much debated question whether bile is secreted from the blood of the portal vein or that of the hepatic artery. Experiments on animals and pathological facts have been mentioned in favor of both these opinions. When a ligature is placed on the portal vein, bile not only continues to be secreted, but the other functions of the liver also continue; but this fact, as Brown-Séquard remarks, cannot prove that the blood of the portal vein is not necessary for these functions, as this blood, after the ligature, passes into the vena cava, and afterward into the arterial circulation, and, therefore, into the liver, by the hepatic artery. It seems very probable, indeed, from the great quantity of bile produced in a day, that the portal blood, if not the only source of the secretion of bile, is at least employed in a great measure for this secretion.

BILFINGER, GEORG BERNHARD, philosopher and mathematician, born at Canstadt, in Würtemberg, Jan. 23, 1693, died at Stuttgart, Feb. 18, 1750. He was born with 12 fingers and 12 toes, and submitted to an operation which removed the deformity. He studied with Wolf at Halle, and became a disciple of the school of Wolf and Leibnitz. In 1725 he received an invitation from Peter the Great, to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the new college at St. Petersburg. He now solved the problem of the cause of gravity proposed by the academy of sciences at Paris, and gained the prize. Being recalled by the duke Charles Edward of Würtemberg, he returned to Tübingen and proceeded to lecture on theology; here his originality in style and ideas soon made him popular, and in 1735 he was appointed a privy councillor. In his new position he proved himself to possess administrative abilities, and by severe study he soon became as celebrated for his political and statistical knowledge as for his scientific attainments. He afterward paid particular attention to agriculture, and promoted the culture of the vine. He was the author of numerous theological and philosophical works. BILGUER, PAUL RUDOLF VON, a famous chess-player, born at Schwerin, Germany, in 1808, died in Berlin Oct. 6, 1840. tered the Prussian army in 1833, and was, not long afterward, promoted to a lieutenancy. On March 18, 1840, he performed at Berlin the curious feat of playing 3 games at once with as many different opponents, conducting 2 of the contests without seeing the boards and men. This intense mental effort is supposed to have been the primary cause of the illness which resulted in his death. His Handbuch des Schach

He en

spiels (Berlin, 1843 and 1852), completed after his death by his friend T. Heydebrandt von der Lasa, made an epoch in the history of chess, and is still the best practical work on that game.

BILIARY DUCTS are small ducts through which the bile flows from the liver and the gall bladder to the duodenum. That portion of the biliary duct which leads directly from the liver to the duodenum gives off a small branch which leads into the gall bladder, in which the gall is collected. This small branch is called the cystic duct, and that part of the larger bile duct which leads from the liver to this cystic duct, is called the hepatic duct; while the rest of the bile duct, leading from this point of junction to the duodenum is called the ductus communis choledochus. This is about the size of a goose quill, and 3 inches long.

BILIOUS FEVER is caused by marsh mias mata, and is most common in the middle and southern sections of the United States, although it occurs in all parts, from the northern lakes to the gulf of Mexico. The localities in which it is most frequent are the western prairies, the valleys of streams, the borders of lakes and ponds, and the neighborhood of marshes; the seasons in which it occurs are the summer and autumnal months. In this form of fever, the febrile phenomena are characterized by striking exacerbations and remissions, one paroxysm occurring in the 24 hours. It is called bilious remittent fever, and differs from intermittent fever in the intermission not being complete. During several days previous to the attack, the patient complains of lassitude, with uneasiness at the epigastrium or region of the stomach, pains in the back, in the limbs, and in the head, and also restlessness at night. The invasion is attended by coldness of the surface, and not unfrequently by shivering. This is soon superseded by heat, febrile flushes, or by alternations of heat and cold; which are soon succeeded by burning heat and dryness of the skin, flushing of the countenance, and injected eyes, with great increase in the headache and pains of the back and limbs. The tongue is foul, and the mouth sometimes dry and clammy. There is nausea, and sometimes vomiting, with much thirst. The pulse, which was weak and quick during the cold stage, is now full and strong; the breathing may be hurried, and the patient is extremely restless. The throbbing and pain in the head are occasionally very violent, and may end in delirium. The urine is scanty and highly colored; the bowels usually constipated, and some degree of tenderness is felt on pressing with the hand over the stomach. After some 12 or 18 hours, these symptoms are succeeded by partial perspirations and an abatement of the febrile symptoms; or these may subside without any moisture on the skin. The remission is marked by the pulse being less full and frequent, the skin cooler, and the pains in the head and back and loins relieved; the stomach is in a less irritable state, and the patient free from delirium. Nine or ten

hours elapse before another paroxysm occurs, which may come on at once, without any feeling of cold, or be preceded by chilliness or shivering. The disease continues in this manner with alternate remissions and paroxysms of fever. If the case end favorably, each succeeding paroxysm becomes milder, until the fever disappears; or it may be carried off by copious perspirations. The periods of remission and increased severity are very irregular, though the abatement of the fever very generally occurs in the morning. In cold climates the disease may continue 14 days or more, but in hot countries it is much more rapid in its course, terminating sometimes as early as the 3d day, and usually in 5 or 7 or 9 days. In the more violent and dangerous cases, the skin is burning hot and the thirst intense; the vomiting incessant, scarcely any thing being retained on the stomach. There is also violent throbbing or shooting pain of the head, attended sometimes with furious delirium. The remissions are short and indistinct; and where the case proceeds to a fatal termination, the fever may become continued. The tongue is furred, red, contracted, and dry, or crusted with black matter; the skin and eyes may have a yellowish tinge, and dark-colored matter may be discharged from the stomach. In some cases there are copious perspirations before death, and the patient sinks rapidly; or the hot, pungent, dry skin may continue to the last.-Bleeding was formerly deemed necessary in bilious fever, but is only now employed in cases of actual or threatened inflammation, or active congestion. It is acknowledged that it cannot cure or shorten the disease, although it may subdue a violent and dangerous inflammation. It was formerly the practice also to commence with an emetic; but this is only indicated where there are crude ingesta or an accumulation of bile in the stomach, shown by frequent retchings and a bitter taste in the mouth. In all cases an active cathartic is deemed necessary, and jalap and rhubarb combined with calomel are mostly used, but calomel is discontinued altogether by some practitioners, and the extract of May-apple or podophyllum peltatum substituted in its stead. The root is the part used and in doses of from 10 to 20 grains. It is also used alone, and alternately with pulvis jalapa compositus, which is a mixture of one part of jalap and two parts of cream of tartar. Diaphoretics are always indicated in the hot stage, and the "effervescent draught" is perhaps the best in an irritable state of the stomach; but water, with any thing to flavor it agreeably to the taste of the patient and the susceptibility of the stomach, is the main agent in producing perspiration to relieve the fever. Cold sponging of the surface of the body with vinegar and water is sometimes very useful, where it does not give a sensation of chill; and where the head is much affected, the application of cold water is very beneficial. As soon as a remission takes place, which may be known by an abatement of all the symptoms, the sulphate of quinine

should be administered. In hot climates the remission may be short and not very marked, but the opportunity should not be lost. Two grains of quinine, in a little water, or in wine and water, may be given every hour or every two hours during the remission. It must be observed, however, that the same dose will not suit every individual; some persons can hardly bear the smallest quantity, while others require larger doses to produce a decided effect. It is always prudent, therefore, to commence with minute doses and increase the quantity, if necessary, afterward. The exhibition of quinine must be suspended on the recurrence of the febrile symptoms, and resumed during the period of remission. It should be continued in diminishing doses, during several days after the fever has entirely disappeared, to prevent a return, which is not uncommon where the treatment is too soon discontinued. Where sudden sinking of the vital powers occurs, the pulse becoming feeble and irregular, the face pallid, the eyes sunken in their sockets, and the limbs cold and clammy, stimulants should be immediately given. Port wine or brandy, sherry or madeira, in sago or in arrow-root, should be given every hour, or oftener, until the pulse begins to rise and the extremities are warm. Champagne is also an excellent stimulant in all such cases. When the pulse has been restored and warmth in the extremities, the stimulants are discontinued, the cold perspirations constantly wiped off, and the extremities are rubbed with warm flannels or rough towels; opium may also be administered in minute doses, to allay excessive pain and restlessness. The patient's drink should consist of barley-water, lemonade, soda-water, or pure cold water, when agreeable to him. Liquids should not be taken in large quantitics at once, where the stomach is very irritable; but where it can be borne with ease, and is grateful to the patient, a very copious draught of cold water is sometimes very beneficial in producing perspiration, when other things have failed. In the low malignant varieties of bilious remittent fever, effervescing drinks, such as seltzer or soda water, light beer, &c., are often very beneficial. Change of air is also very desirable during convalescence.

BILL, BROWNBILL, GLAIVE, VOULGE, or GISARME, all names for nearly the same instrument, which, with some slight modification, was the standing weapon of the English infantry at close quarters, as was the long bow their weapon at distant range, from the days of the battle of Hastings, at which the Saxons used the bill and the Normans the bow, until those of Queen Elizabeth; for the English were never spearmen, nor ever fought in heavy columns, like the Scots and Swiss, until after the musket had superseded the bow; when, for a short time previous to the invention of the bayonet, the pike was used, during the wars of the commonwealth and of the Low Countries. The original brownbill was a ponderous cutting

weapon with 2 edges, that forward of the shaft having a concave or sickle blade, that to the back, a sort of angular cutting face, the upper part projecting before the base, so as to give a drawing blow. This terrible instrument was nearly 3 feet in length, and 10 or 12 pounds in weight, set erect on a shaft of 3 or 4 feet. It was wielded with both hands, and could sever a horse's head or a man's thigh or shoulder, through the strongest mail or plate armor, as a modern woodman's bill-hook slices off a hazel sapling. The weapon was afterward lengthened and lightened, and provided with a spear head, so that the holder could charge it like a lance, and sometimes with a cutting hook, for severing the bridles of the men-at-arms, or pulling them out of their saddles.

BILL, in congress or parliament. See Aor. BILL IN EQUITY, is the preliminary procceding of an equity suit. The bill contains a statement of the plaintiffs' case. In English law it is addressed to the lord chancellor, and commencing with the names of the plaintiffs, proceeds to state the circumstances of their case, and the grievance to be redressed; setting out all documentary evidence relied on. From the statement it proceeds to charge against the defendants, collectively or individually, the various facts which either specifically or by induction constitute the gravamen of the case. It concludes with the prayer for relief, and with interrogatories both general and specific, to which the plaintiff's require an answer. The bill may not join distinct subjects of complaint; if so, it is objectionable for multifariousness. It must be as compendious as possible, otherwise its length is liable to be reduced at the plaintiffs' cost. It must contain no irrelevant matter, otherwise it may be excepted to for impertinence; nor scandalous matter, that is, the narrative of mere hearsay report, or as personally offensive expressions, which may be expunged. The introductory or narrative part must support the charging part; the charges must cover all the case intended to be made against the defendants, and the interrogatories must demand specific information, either affirmation, denial, or explanation, upon all those points which are important to the establishment of the plaintiffs' case. As new facts come to the plaintiffs' knowledge, either from the defendants' admissions or from other sources, the bill may be amended, and new interrogatories added, while bills of revivor and supplement are filed to bring the representatives of deceased parties or of newly born children before the court. This form of procedure necessarily leads to an immense quantity of verbiage and repetition, but adherents of the practice affirm that it is warranted by experience. In answer to the recommendation of law reformers that every thing stated by the bill shall be assumed to be matter of inquiry, and that every thing not expressly denied by the other side shall be taken to be admitted, they reply that this was the ancient practice, and that the modern is an improvement on it. The ancient

BILL OF RIGHTS

practice, it is said, led to the introduction of infinitely greater prolixity, both of statement and counter statement, while the suitor suffered because the gist of his case was not concisely brought to the notice of the court. By the New York code of procedure, the distinction between law and equity is abolished. Every suit is designated a civil action, and is commenced by the same process. The complaint is now the substitute for the bill in equity, and presents the facts of the plaintiffs' case in a much more compendious shape. Whether that merit is fully attained is, however, an open question.

BILL OF EXCHANGE. See EXCHANGE. BILL OF HEALTH, that part of a ship's papers which relates to the health of the crew and passengers. It is authenticated by the captain and medical man on board, and sometimes by the consul at the port of embarkation. A false return subjects the offender to severe penalties. Vessels coming from ports in which plague, yellow fever, or other infectious diseases are prevalent, are of course objects of particular attention. A clean or a foul bill of health determines as to the necessity of quarantine.

BILL OF INDICTMENT. See INDICTMENT. BILL OF LADING, a commercial instrument, signed by the master of a ship as the receipt for cargo to be conveyed as freight. This document specifies the goods, the ship, the price, and the port of delivery, with such other particulars as may be requisite. It stipulates for their safe delivery, and constitutes the contract between the shipper and the ship owner. It is generally signed in duplicate, the 2 parts of which are transmitted to the consignee by different channels. Certain exceptions are usually mentioned, against which the carrier does not guarantee the goods, as the acts of God, enemies in time of war, fire, and the accidents of navigation. The goods are usually deliverable to consignees or their order, sometimes to the order of the shipper, upon payment of freight, as mentioned, primage and average. Primage is a perquisite to the master-a small percentage on the freight. Average is the share in certain small expenses of the ship-pilotage, towage, harbor dues, &c. The bill of lading is assignable, and transfers the ownership of the goods; accordingly, the assignee can maintain an action for recovery of the goods themselves. But an action for damages for non-delivery of the goods in good order must be brought by the shipper. The master's contract is complete on delivery of the goods, in good order, at the usual place of delivery of the port, and upon notice given thereof to the consignee, unless there be any particular stipulation as to the mode of delivery.

BILL OF RIGHTS, in English constitutional law, is, properly, the act of parliament 1 William and Mary (sess. 2, c. 2), by which certain claims contained in the declaration of rights were enacted as fundamental principles

of political liberty. The declaration had been delivered at the time the crown was tendered to the prince and princess of Orange, Feb. 13, 1689. It recited the principal grievances which the nation had suffered under the preceding reign, viz. the assumption as a royal prerogative to grant a dispensation from penal acts of parliament-the establishment of a new tribunal to determine ecclesiastical questions-levying taxes without consent of parliament-maintaining a standing army in time of peace-interfering with the administration of justice and the freedom of elections-exacting excessive bail from prisoners-inflicting barbarous and unusual punishments, and treating as criminal petitions for a redress of wrongs all of which acts were declared to be illegal. It then asserted the right of subjects to petition-the right of parliament to freedom of debate the right of electors to choose representatives freely-and various other privileges. These were reiterated in the act of parliament above referred to, with some additional stringency, as in respect to the dispensing power, which by the declaration had been condemned, as exercised by James, as unlawful, but by the act was absolutely and forever taken away. These rights were again asserted, with some additions, in the act of settlement, by which the crown was limited to the Hanover family (12 and 13 William III., c. ii.). Similar provisions were appended to the constitution of the United States, as amendments thereto. They are chiefly declaratory of the freedom of speech and of the press-of the right of citizens peaceably to assemble and petition government for the redress of grievances—of the right of trial by jury-that private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation-that no law shall be passed by congress for the establishment of any religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. In the constitutions or laws of many of the United States is to be found a similar recital of rights, usually including the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus.

BILL OF SALE, an instrument in writing by which personal property is transferred. It is not necessary that it should be under seal, nor is there any difference in the legal effect, other than that the seal imports a consideration; but by the laws of the state of New York even this distinction is virtually abrogated, as the consideration of a sealed instrument can now be inquired into the same as that of any other contract, and the same provision has been adopted in other states. A bill of sale of a ship or vessel is a muniment of title of peculiar importance. In most countries it is either by custom or statute absolutely required. In this country possession of a ship and acts of ownership are presumptive evidence of title, without documentary proof. But this presumption may be rebutted by contrary proof, and the general rule is that a person who has no title can convey none. Mere possession

by the vendor is not sufficient to enable him to give a title, although as between the parties the mere delivery of possession is sufficient without a bill of sale.

BILLAUD-VARENNE, JACQUES NICOLAS, & leading member of the French national convention, born at La Rochelle, April 23, 1756, died in Hayti, June 3, 1819. He studied law, and after leading for several years a vagrant life, he finally, in 1785, became an advocate at Paris. He published at Amsterdam, in 1789, a book called Despotisme des ministres de France, which was a "full recital of the principles and means used by the aristocracy to keep France in bondage." He renewed his attacks in his pamphlet Plus de ministres! which appeared in Paris the following year. Meanwhile, he had assailed the clergy in 2 anonymous publications: Dernier coup porté aux préjugés et à la superstition, and Le peintre politique, both issued in London, but largely circulated in France. July 1, 1791, at one of the meetings of the "Friends of the Constitution," he proposed to change the French monarchy into a republic; and the same year he published his celebrated pamphlet Acéphalocratie, which was followed by a prosecution, ended Sept. 1791, when Louis XVI. took the oath to the constitution, and granted a general amnesty for political offences. Among the Jacobins, Billaud distinguished himself by his ultra opinions. He was appointed, Aug. 10, a member of the commune of Paris, then substitute to the "procureur-syndic," in place of Danton, who had just been promoted to the department of justice. Sent to Chalons to watch some suspected generals, he returned Sept. 20, 1792, to take his seat in the convention, to which he had been elected by one of the districts of Paris. There he pursued the same course of deadly opposition to the monarchy and monarchists. In 1793 he supported the resolution to try Louis XVI. forthwith, and voted not only for the death of the king, but for that of the queen and ministers. He had, beside, a hand in nearly all the extreme measures which were then adopted against so-called internal enemies. He supported the charge by which the unfortunate general Custine was sent to the scaffold. He obtained the repeal of the decree forbidding domiciliary visits during the night, and supported the motion to form a revolutionary army. As a reward for his zeal, he was chosen president of the convention, and member of the committee of public safety. In this capacity, he founded the Bulletin des lois, a valuable collection, which is yet continued, and was the framer of the revolutionary government. In 1794 he became dissatisfied with the conduct of Robespierre, especially his aspirations to the dictatorship; so that on the 8th Thermidor he joined the party bent on the overthrow of the new tyrant, and contributed to their success; but this did not save him from being afterward suspected and accused by them. Finally, an inquiry into his acts was ordered, and he was arrested in company

with Collot d'Herbois and Barrère. His popularity among the citizens of the suburbs was so great, that they attempted to rescue him by force on the 12th Germinal; but the mob was quelled, and he, as well as his companions, was sentenced to transportation. Then a more formidable insurrection broke out on the 1st Prairial; but he had already been sent to Cayenne with Collot d'Herbois. There he lived for 20 years in savage retirement, refusing to avail himself of the amnesty offered by Napoleon, after the 18th Brumaire. In 1816, however, he escaped from Cayenne, and went to Port-auPrince, where, proud and lonely, he barely made a living by the law. Three years later, he died, as stern and immovable as ever.

BILLAULT, AUGUSTE ADOLPHE MARIE, a French statesman, born Nov. 12, 1805, at Vannes, in the department of Morbihau. After studying the law at Rennes, he removed to Nantes, where he practised with success. He managed to be elected in succession a member of the municipal council of Nantes, and a member of the general council of the department of Loire Inférieure. He now published pamphlets upon education in France, municipal organization, roads, &c. In 1837, when only 31, his popularity in his department had become so great, that he was chosen to the chamber of deputies by 3 electoral districts. His style of oratory was at first little to the taste of the chamber; but notwithstanding his unsuccessful début, he soon secured for himself a conspicuous place in the assembly by activity of mind, industry, and practical knowledge. As early as 1838, he was appointed a member of the committee to devise a general plan for railways throughout France; the reports which he drew up commanded general attention. On the formation of the Thiers cabinet, March 1, 1840, he accepted the situation of assistant secretary to the minister of agriculture and commerce; but when Thiers was overthrown by Guizot, Billault resigned also. When the treaty upon the right of search, concluded Dec. 20, 1841, by Guizot, was presented to the chamber, Billault made himself conspicuous among its opponents, and his speeches greatly contributed to its defeat. He also took an efficient part in the debate on the Pritchard indemnity. During the following years, he shared in nearly all important discussions, showing a marked preference for questions of foreign policy. He was reckoned among the members of the opposition, and frequently indulged in denunciations of government corruption; he however became the legal adviser of the duke of Aumale, the richest son of Louis Philippe. At the same time he affected to consider himself as the necessary successor of Guizot; but his ambitious aspirations were defeated by the sudden outbreak of the revolution of February, 1848. Being elected to the constituent assembly by a large majority, he now declared himself a republican, voted with the most advanced party, and went so far as to support the democratic project known as the

right to labor. He was not elected to the legis lative assembly, and returned to the practice of law. He had early intercourse with the new president, Louis Napoleon, and was frequently called on by him for political advice. On the coup d'état of Dec. 2, Billault at once gave his hearty adhesion to the new régime. He presented himself as the government candidate to the legislative body in Feb. 1852, and was chosen by a handsome majority. He was made president of that assembly, which post he held for a little over 2 years, his nomination as minister of the interior, March 24, 1854, not preventing his continuance in the presidential chair to the end of the session; and on June 6, he presented to the emperor an able report of the proceedings of the body. His acts as a minister are not unworthy of the reputation he had previously acquired as a practical politician. After the attempt against the life of Napoleon III., by Orsini and his accomplices, Jan. 14, 1858, Billault tendered his resignation, expressing a desire to retire to private life; and in Feb., Gen. Espinasse was appointed his successor as minister of the interior, with the additional title of minister of general safety.

BILLE, STEEN ANDERSEN, a Danish rear-admiral, and minister of marine, born in Copenhagen, Dec. 5, 1797. Following in the footsteps of his father, who was born Aug. 22, 1751, and died April 15, 1833, and who distinguished himself on various occasions, especially during the memorable siege of the Danish capital by the English, young Bille entered the navy at an early age. In 1819 he joined the French service, and in 1823 he took a part in the Spanish campaign. Subsequently, he was engaged in the naval service of Denmark, and stationed for several years in transatlantic countries, and in the Levant. In 1840 he served on board the Bellone during the expedition of that vessel to South America; and in 1845, he made, in the Galatea, a voyage round the world, which was undertaken under the auspices of the government, in the interests of commerce and science. On his return to Denmark, he found a new sphere of activity in the Schleswig-Holstein war, during which he was employed in the blockade of the Elbe and Weser, and of the Holstein coast. Finally, in 1852, he was appointed minister of marine, councillor, and rearadmiral. He has been frequently a contributor to the literature of his country. His principal production is an account of his voyage round the world, of which the third and last volume appeared at Copenhagen in 1851.

BILLIARDS, a game played with ivory balls, on a flat, oblong table covered with green cloth, having raised, elastic, cushioned edges, with semi-circular apertures, one at each corner, and 2 facing each other, at the centre of the long sides. The dimensions of a full-sized billiard table are 12 feet by 6. The bed, or level surface, over which the cloth is strained as tightly as possible, is composed, in the best improved modern tables, of slate, and the cushions