tation for its agreeable character; the manners of the people are polite and cheerful, and amusements of every description are followed by all classes. The ladies are fond of ornaments, and in addition to the picturesque costume of the morning saya and mantilla, delight in showy and expensive evening dresses, with a profusion of rich jewelry. The moral condition of the inhabitants has called forth a variety of comments from different travellers, some of whom have, doubtless, given a too unfavorable coloring to their sketches. The new constitution, adopted in May, 1853, in many of its features like that of the United States, admits freedom of religious education and of the press. The manufactures of Bogota are of little importance. The native cottons and woollens are coarse fabrics, the finer stuffs being supplied from abroad, in exchange for the mineral productions, the tobacco, bark, and other vegetable products of the country. The extensive plain furnishes abundant crops, sometimes 2 in a year, of wheat, barley, and vegetables, and pasturage to numberless herds of cattle, horses, and flocks of sheep. It is watered by the river Bogota, which receives near the city the stream called the San Francisco, that flows through the town. For 40 miles the course of the Bogota is through a deep ravine in a S. W. direction toward the Rio Magdalena. As it leaves the plain, 17 miles from Bogota, it is first contracted from a width of 144 feet to about 36 feet, and then is suddenly precipitated in a fall variously stated at 574, 650, and 900 feet. This is the famous fall of Tequendama, one of the highest cataracts in the world. The water in such an immense leap is thrown into spray, which rises in a column, that is sometimes visible near the city. Below the precipice a tropical climate and vegetation take the place of those of the temperate region of the plain, and instead of the cereal plants, the oaks, and the elms, the traveller finds the sugar-canes, bananas, and palm-trees. Another remarkable object, at some distance, is the natural bridge of Pandi. Across the top of a deep cleft in the rocks, some fragments appear to have fallen together in the form of an arch, and spanned the chasm, which is about 30 feet wide, with a bridge of about 15 feet. This was possibly formed by an earthquake at the same time with the chasm itself. The depth of the chasm to the water which flows at its bottom is about 360 feet. In the eastern Cordillera, 75 miles N. N. E. of the city, at the junction of the ammonite limestone and hornblende rocks, are the famous emerald mines of Muzo, which have proved a most prolific source of this precious stone to the European markets. The mines are owned by the government, and leased to a company of natives and foreigners. The salt mines, also near the city, and owned by the government, supply the whole of the interior of New Grenada. That of Zipaquira or Zichaquira is described as glittering like an immense rock of crystal, and as

having yielded an annual revenue of $150,000. The total revenue which the government now derives from all the salt mines, and salt springs of the mountains to the N. E. of Bogota, is estimated at $500,000; and this is increasing with the increase of population. In the vicinity of Velez, to the north of Bogota, are the celebrated copper mines of Moniquira, the products of which find their way to the Magdalena, down which they are shipped to the Caribbean coast. Mines of this ore not worked appear to abound in various localities convenient to the Magdalena, to the commerce of which they will no doubt, in future years, add large contributions. Iron, lead, and coal are also known to exist in the same region with the copper mines; but these have not attracted much interest. Coal is said to occur abundantly, on the south side of the city, and a coal mountain has lately been discovered north of the city. This statement, made in Taylor's "Statistics of Coal," is said to be derived from a resident of Bogota, familiar with the use of this combustible. The fossils accompanying it were figured and described by Professor Forbes, in the journal of the geological society of London, May 1, 1844, and others of similar character, from the same locality, were described at an earlier period by Von Buch. These fossils refer the coal to the cretaceous formation; and consequently, it is not likely to prove of much importance. Coal-beds in the true coal formation are not known to occur in the range of the Andes, or even in South America. Silver mines are worked in the province of Mariquita, west of the Magdalena river, by an English company; and in the same range of hills, further north, in the province of Antioquia, are gold mines found throughout an extensive territory, and worked by many companies, native and foreign. Their annual production is rated at about $5,000,000.

BOGUE, DAVID, the principal originator of the London missionary society and the religious tract society, born at Halydown, Berwickshire, Scotland, March 1, 1750, died at Brighton, Oct. 25, 1825. He studied and graduated at the university of Edinburgh, and was licensed as a preacher in the church of Scotland. In 1771 he went to London, and kept a school at Chelsea for some years. After a visit to Amsterdam, in 1776, where he declined an offer to become minister of the Scotch church there, he became pastor of an independent congregation at Gosport, Hampshire, where he also kept a semi-collegiate establishment for young men intending to be preachers. In 1791 he commenced an agitation through the pulpit and the press, which led to the formation of the London missionary society, in 1795. He became head of a seminary founded by that body, and wrote the first tract for the religious tract society, which chiefly originated with him. He was also one of the projectors, and first editor of the "Evangelical Magazine," and took an active part in the formation of the British and foreign

Bible society. Beside various pamphlets, he wrote an "Essay on the Divine Authority of the New Testament," which was translated into several languages, and (in conjunction with Dr. James Bennett, his pupil, friend, and biographer) a "History of Dissenters," 4 vols. 8vo, of which a 2d edition appeared in 1833.

BOGUS, a word of American origin. We say bogus currency, bogus lotteries, bogus banks, a bogus transaction, &c., to signify something fraudulent or delusive in these concerns. It is said that some 20 years ago an individual calling himself Borghese circulated in the north-western and south-western states of the union a number both of counterfeit bills on real banks and also of bills on banks that existed only in Borghese's imagination. The western people corrupted the Italian name Borghese into Bogus, and made it a by-name of reproach. From the west it has become current in the popular speech all over the union.

BOGUSŁAWSKI, ADALBERT (Polish Wojciech), a Polish actor, manager, and dramatic author, born in the grand duchy of Posen about 1760, died in Warsaw in 1829. He went upon the stage in Warsaw in 1778, and from that epoch until 1810, at which time he was finally settled as the manager of the theatre in Warsaw, he wandered with various fortunes from one end of Poland to another; establishing theatres in various cities and towns; at times the victim of private misfortunes; at others bending under political calamities. He translated comedies, dramas, and operas, from the French, English, and Italian, and composed many original pieces, in which he reproduced national songs, legends, manners, and customs, preserving always the purity and vigor of the Polish language. His plays were published at Warsaw in 1820, in 9 vols.

BOGUSŁAWSKI, PALM HEINRICH LUDWIG VON, astronomer, born Sept. 7, 1789, at Magdeburg, died at Breslau, June 5, 1851. In 1806 he fought against the invading French army. The comet of 1807 afforded him occasion to make his first astronomical observations. In 1809, as an officer of artillery, he passed his examination in such a distinguished manner that the government continued him at the high artillery school in Berlin, where, in 1811, he participated in the observations and calculations made by Bode upon the great comet of that year. During the campaigns of 1813-'15, in which he took part on the recommendation of Bode, he found access to the principal European observatories. He was wounded and made prisoner at the battle of Kulm, but escaped and joined the army in Erfurt. He finished his military career at the battle of Waterloo, where he had the singular fortune to fire the first and the last gun-shot. His eyesight became weakened, and he devoted himself to agriculture; but afterward his eyes recovered, and he returned to his cherished astronomical studies. In 1831 he became conservator, and in 1843, director of the observatory in Bres

lau, and from 1836 was a professor at the university there. In 1834 he discovered a comet bearing his name.

BOHA-EDDIN, or BOHADDIN (ABOULMONASSEN-YUSSUF-IBN-SHEDDAD), an Arabian scholar and historian, born at Mosul in 1145, died in 1235. Having attained proficiency in Moslem law, he became, at the age of 27, a lecturer at Bagdad. In 1186 he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and returned through the holy land, visiting Jerusalem, Hebron, and other sacred cities. While in Damascus, he was summoned to the Moslem camp by Saladin, who was desirous of availing himself of the services and influence of so able a scholar, and a man of such reputed Moslem piety and zeal. He accordingly brought his learning and talent to the work of glorifying the wars of that ambitious monarch, in a treatise on the "Laws and Discipline of Sacred War." Saladin appointed him cadi of Jerusalem and of the army, and a strong attachment from the commencement subsisted between them, which the scholar knew well how to turn to good account. On the death of Saladin he transferred his attachment to the son, Malek-alDhaher, whom he was instrumental in establishing in the succession of the throne. In return, the new prince of Aleppo appointed Boha-eddin to the office of cadi of the city, which brought him constantly to reside in the royal court. Aleppo now became the resort for men of science and learning. At this period of his life Bohaeddin founded a college, and he continued to give lectures until he was 90 years old. His great work was, however, the "Life of Saladin." It is a work pronounced, on the whole, free from the extravagance which so generally renders oriental productions distasteful to the more practical scholars of the West. It is written, however, from the stand-point of a zealous Moslem, rather than from that of the practised soldier or the politic statesman.

BOHEMIA (anciently Bogenheim, home of the Celtic Boii), in S. E. Germany, formerly indepenent, now belonging to Austria, lies between lat. 48° 33′ and 51° 4′ N., and long. 12° and 16° 46′ E., bounded N. by Saxony, E. by Prussia and Austrian Silesia and Moravia, S. by Austria proper, and W. by Bavaria; area, 20,012 sq. m.; pop. 4,800,818. It is almost perfectly surrounded by 4 mountain chains, namely: the Erzgebirge on the side of Saxony, the Böhmerwaldgebirge (Bohemian forest mountains) on the side of Bavaria, the Moravian mountains on the side of Moravia, and the Riesengebirge and Sudeten on the side of Silesia. The country is, therefore, believed to have been in ancient times a great lake with a few islands, until the waters broke through the sandstone formation of the eastern Erzgebirge (in a length of 20 miles, and over 200 feet deep), and so formed the channel of the Elbe, by which Bohemia is mainly drained. Within these 4 ridges, of which the first, second, and last ascend to over 4,000, the third to over 2,000 feet, is one great hilly basin, with an average elevation in the north of 700, and in the

south of 1,000 feet above the level of the sea, with no extensive plain, and a great variety of geological formations, granite, sienite and gneiss prevailing at the extreme south; granite, greenstone, and other primitive rocks, at the west and north, where they are partially interrupted by basaltic and other plutonic masses; and tertiary and secondary formation, primitive and basaltic rock, at the east; and even a greater variety all over the interior. The mineral products are more varied than in any other country of the same size; some gold and silver and many more or less precious stones are found, and salt and platina alone are entirely absent. The mineral springs of Carlsbad, Eger, Töplitz, Marienbad, and many others are famous. The climate, sheltered from the northern winds and varied by so manifold a surface, is the most genial, and the soil, except in some southern portions, among the most fertile in Germany; the land is well timbered and well watered, the rivers Moldau and Elbe being navigable to a great distance. It is one of the best stocked provinces of Austria as regards cattle, horses, sheep, and poultry. Nearly of the land is under cultivation, the remainder in forest, furnishing a yearly wood-crop of 3,000,000 cords, beside timber for building and other mechanical purposes. Of grain the yearly crop is between 20,000,000 and 40,000,000 bushels, of which rye furnishes a third, a large portion of which is exported. Enormous masses of green vegetables and fruit are exported to the north, on account of their early appearance in market; there is also a large crop of flax, hemp, tobacco, and hops, with much bad wine. Flax is the great staple of the country. It is raised from imported Russian seed; but the domestic manufactures require a considerable importation in addition. Hand-spinning, now almost abandoned, occupied, in 1800, over 300,000 persons; since which machinery has come in. Weaving and bleaching employ over 130,000 persons, producing linen goods, partly of the finest description, to the annual value of nearly $3,000,000. Lace-making by hand formerly supported over 40,000 persons at the north; but since the invention of machine lace, not as many. Cotton manufactories are increasing; in 1855 there were over 500,000 spindles, producing about 80,000 cwt. of yarn; nearly 60,000 looms were employed on calicoes. These manufactories are in the northern region, next the Erzgebirge, but the woollen factories, of which, in 1851, there were 146, are more numerous in the north-east, near Reichenberg. There are over 50 leather factories, and the gloves of Prague are much in demand. The paper mills of Prague and the north-east are flourishing. The Boliemian glass factories, producing annually about $2,000,000, are renowned all over the world, and work mostly for export, particularly to America; the imitation gems, the looking-glass, and fine ornamental glass-ware being unsurpassed. Factories of earthen and stone ware, of wooden and willow ware, and of toys and household furniture,

give employment to thousands. There are numerous iron works in the vicinity of Prague and Pilsen; excellent steel and cutlery come from Carlsbad and Nixdorf; pewter and tin ware from Carlsbad, Eger, Prague, and Rumburg; mathematical instruments from Neudeck; optical glasses from Bürgstein; chemical and refined sugar from numerous establishments. The exports are some $6,000,000, and exceed the imports by $1,000,000.-Of the population more than are Slavonic, the rest of German descent; the latter inhabiting in compact masses the northernmost quarter of the country, the mountainous districts, and forming a great part of every city and town population, being more given to industrial pursuits; while the former, called Cechi, and belonging to the same tribe as the Moravians, are the more agricultural portion of the population, and of all Slavonic tribes, undoubtedly the most gifted, cultivated, and the richest in literature and art. They are preëminently a musical people, and are fond of song and poetry. With the exception of 87,353 Protestants and 75,459 Jews, all are Catholics. The educational system, though the best in Austria, is much inferior to any other in Germany. There are only 3,500 primary schools, and the university and other high schools have but lately begun to improve. They excel solely in mathematical, medical, and technical branches.The earliest population was Celtic, of a tribe called Boii, who, before the Christian era, were driven over the Alps by German tribes, of which, in the first centuries of Christianity, a number inhabiting Bohemia and Moravia were united into a confederation called Marcomanni (frontier men). After long struggles with the Romans along the Danube, the Marcomanni broke into the Roman empire in the 5th century, and, under the name of Boioarians, seem to have peopled the present Bavaria. In their wake the Slavonian Cechi peaceably filled the whole of Bohemia and Moravia. The present admixture of German blood in these countries dates from the 6th and 7th centuries, when the Germans invaded and colonized portions of the country. The Christian religion was introduced by Methodius about 890, when the king of Moravia, Swatopluk, also ruled Bohemia. After his death in 894, an invasion of the Magyars destroyed this Moravian kingdom, and the Bohemians voluntarily sought annexation to the German empire, with which they have, since then, remained united, in spite of the endeavors of Boleslaw I. (936-'67), who united the whole of the country under his sceptre, to make himself again independent. About 1050 his descendant Brzetislaw I. annexed Moravia. The native dukes several times assisted the German emperors against rebellious subjects, and in 1158 received the kingly dignity from Frederic I. Wars of succession convulsed the country until Ottokar I. (1197–1230), a truly great monarch, made the royalty hereditary. By conquest he and his son Ottokar II. extended their dominion over a part of Poland, Austria, and Prussia,

where the latter, in 1256, on a crusade against the heathen Borussians, founded the city of Königsberg. After a short struggle against the em peror Rudolf I., the Bohemian monarchs acquired Poland and Hungary by election; but with the assassination of Wenzel II. the native ruling house was extinguished, and succeeded by the house of Luxemburg, until that line, in 1526, was superseded by Austrian dukes. Charles I. (1347-'78), who as the German emperor was without any influence, was a great king for Bohemia, which he augmented by Lusatia and other acquisitions, which were soon lost. Under his reign the country flourished; Prague, then the only German university, numbered 30,000 students, science and art were fostered, and manufactures, particularly those of glass and linen, were founded. From the beginning of the 15th century the ideas of the reformation began to spread by the teachings of Huss and Jerome of Prague, whose death, at Constance, in 1415 and 1416, and the intervention of the emperor Sigismund, caused the outbreak of the Hussite war. Under the victorious sway of the Hussites the throne of Bohemia was filled by election, mostly from the Luxemburg line, once by a native nobleman, George Podiebrad (1458-71), until the second Austrian duke Ferdinand, in 1547, by treachery, again made the crown hereditary in the house of Austria. In 1618 the Bohemians rebelled and began the 30 years' war. In 1619 they chose the elector palatine Frederic V. as their king; but soon succumbed in the battle at the White Mountain, near Prague, in 1620. The most cruel persecution commenced; thousands were executed, thousands imprisoned and banished, and their estates confiscated. The constitution was abolished, the crown declared hereditary, Protestantism forbidden and exterminated with fire and sword, the Cechian literature, school system, and nationality proscribed, the native state with its civilization annihilated. No less than 36,000 families, of which 1,088 were noble, all Protestant preachers and teachers, and whosoever refused to become Catholic-in short, the flower of the nation-had to emigrate, and found refuge in Saxony, Sweden, Poland, Holland, Brandenburg, and elsewhere. This, and the sufferings of the 30 years' war, devastated the land. German Catholics were introduced as colonists, and every thing German favored and preferred to such an extent, that the Germans of Bohemia, for more than a century, furnished more than half of all the officers in the Austrian provinces. Even up to 1849, the whole of the Austrian artillery consisted of German Bohemians. To make up for this loss of freedom and higher civilization, agricultural and manufacturing industry was carefully fostered by the government, and the general national welfare was inconsiderably, and but for very short periods, interrupted in the 7 years' war, and the Napoleonic wars. The revolution of 1848 inverted diametrically the position of the parties toward the Austrian government: the Germans of Bohemia, enthusiastic for German

unity and popular liberty, in common with the enormous majority of Austrian Germans, opposed their government; the Cechi in Bohemia, together with the Slavonic population of Austria, looked for a great Slavonic empire in Austria, and, in spite of the bombardment of Prague, where a Slavonic congress, under Bakounine's guidance, was assembled June 11, 1848, by the military, have ever since supported the Austrian authorities. For further information, see AUSTRIA.

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a Christian society of the 15th century, who rejected the mass, purgatory, transubstantiation, prayers for the dead, and the adoration of images, and contended for the communion in both kinds. The Hussite movement commenced in 1409, and was followed by a general insurrection of the Bohemian heretics, under Zisca, when 300 tables were spread in the open air for a public communion in both kinds. Then came the more moderate Calixtines. According to some historians, the Bohemian brethren were an offshoot from the Calixtines and Catholics, just after the compromise in 1467. But it is certain that they had attracted no particular notice until 1503, when they were accused by the Catholic party, and an edict was issued against them, prohibiting both their public and private meetings. And when, in the incipient movements of Luther, the Bohemian brethren offered to join his party, that reformer protested, probably on the ground of their anabaptism. This they afterward renounced in 1535, and having sent deputies to Luther, who explained to him more fully their doctrines, he consented to receive them as colaborers. They afterward generally joined the Zwinglians, in which body they finally disappear from the page of history, although the modern society of United Brethren, or Moravians, may be regarded as an offshoot from this body.

BOHEMIAN FOREST, or BÖHMERWALD, the dividing chain of mountains between the waters of the Danube and Elbe, between Bavaria and Bohemia, between the Slavonic Cechi and the Germanic Franconians. It runs in a north-westerly direction, from about Linz to Eger, for upward of 144 miles. It begins abruptly on the Danube, and ascends, for the first half of its course, to an average height of 2,300, in its summits to 4,600 feet, mostly steep and rugged, with high plateaus on the Bavarian side, ending in steep slopes on the rivers Regen and Naab, and short mountain chains on the Bohemian side, overlooking the southern terrace of Bohemia. It consists exclusively of primitive granite and gneiss. Up to 3,600 feet the surface is covered with dense forests and swamps, which in part are a terra incognita to this day. It has parallel rugged chains, with few passes, and is one of the roughest portions of Germany. The Moldau and the Regen are the chief rivers which rise here. The highest point is the Great Arber, 4,650 feet high. Near Neumark, in Bo

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hemia, the main chain is interrupted by the deep transverse valley of the river Cham, 14 miles broad, affording a passage for the Bohemian and Bavarian railroad. On the other side of this valley are the majestic High Bow, 3,200 feet, and the Ossa, 3,950 feet high. The northern continuation of the forest is decidedly lower on an average, and less broken, with no main chain, but several parallel ridges as high as 2,700 feet, mingling at the northern extremity on the Bavarian side with the Fichtel mountains; on the Bohemian side, with the Erzgebirge. The whole forest is of a high strategetical inportance, and proved so in the Hussite and Napoleonic wars. The productions of the mountains are very poor, oats being almost the only grain, and flax and cattle the only market staples. The population is, with hardly an exception, Germanic or Germanized, rough, uncouth, but temperate, sober, industrious, and conservative. Iron, glass, and linen fabrics are produced. Cham is the only city of importance. BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. The adjective Bohemian is inappropriate when applied to the principal nation of the westerly Slavonians, and is, moreover, also wrongly applied to the gypsies or Tsigans. The true name of the people is Cechi (pronounced Chai-hee), from ceti, to begin, as they believe themselves to be the first of the family. The language is the harshest, strongest, most abounding in consonants, and, at the same time, the most significant, richest, and the first and most developed of the many dialects of the Slavic family, which itself is the northernmost relative of the Sanscrit, the culminating tongue of the Aryan stock. Nearest to the Cechic are the Moravian and the Slovak of N. and W. Hungary, both sub-dialects, and the Sorbo-Wendic of Lusatia, a cognate dialect. The southern and south-western Slavons had obtained letters from Cyrillus, who modified the Greek alphabet, and the Glagolitic characters, wrongly ascribed to St. Jerome, before the Latin mode of writing was adopted by the other branches of the family, in the form of the black letter, and recently in the Italian shape. In this language there are the 5 Italian vowels (both short and long), with an additional y (short and long), which is duller and heavier than ; 1 diphthong, ou (pronounced as in English our); the pseudo-diphthongs of all the vowels with a closing y, and the diphthong é (pronounced ie as in the Italian niego), written with one letter. B, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, , sound as in English; but c is pronounced as if written ts in English; g before e, i, y, like y in yes; h harsher than in hen; r trembling and rolling, and not slurred over, as in the English marsh, park; 8 always as in sap; t always as in tin; w like the English v; z always as in zeal. The following letters with the diacritic sign () are pronounced-c like English ch in chat; s like sh in shall; z like the French j, or the English z in glazier; r like the Polish rz, almost like rsh, as much as possible in one utterance; d like the Magyar gy (dy in one utterance); t like the

Magyar ty; n like the Italian gn in signore, or Magyar ny; there is also a peculiar letter l, with a cross-bar as in Polish, having a heavy and dull sound unknown to the English. The letter z occurs only in foreign words. The combination ch is pronounced as in German, being the most strongly aspirated guttural sound; the trigramma sch represents 2 sounds, viz., s and ch, as in the German word Gläschen. The Cechic language has no article, but declinable demonstrative pronouns. It has 3 genders, 8 declensions, 7 cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, instrumental or sociative, and locative); 3 numbers (a dual only in nouns and pronouns); 2 kinds of adjectives, determinate and indeterminate; organic and periphrastic degrees of comparison, declinable numerals, 6 forms of the verb (with but 1 inflection), 6 moods (indicative, imperative, conjunctive, optative, conditional, and transgressive or participial). The passive voice and the future tenses are made by means of auxiliaries; but the terminations of persons and numbers are not less developed than in Greek and Latin. Great liberty in the sequence of words characterizes the syntax, which is analogous to the Greek and Latin. Metre predominates over the tones in the vocalism of words, so that the Cechic language can vie with the Magyar in rendering Greek and Latin poetic rhythm. Great variety, force, and phonetic symbolism in the derivating affixes, enrich the language with a great number of expressions, and make up for its scantiness of metaphony.-Jos. Dombrowsky, the greatest Slavic linguist, divides the history of the Cechic language and literature into 6 periods, commencing with the following epochs: 1, the immigration of the Cechi, 550 B. C.; 2, their conversion to Christianity, A. D. 845; 3, King John of Luxemburg, 1310; 4, John Huss, who introduced a precise orthography, 1410; 5, the extension of printing, and Ferdinand I., of Hapsburg, 1526; 6, the battle at the White Mountain, and the expulsion of the non-Catholics, 1620. The discovery, in 1817, of a part of the Rukopis Kralodworsky (manuscript of Kōniginhof), by Hanka, in a church steeple, brought to light a collection of 14 lyric and epic poems, written between 1290 and 1310, in a tender and emphatic strain, and superior to most of the contemporary productions of other European nations. There are about 20 poetic and 50 prose works extant belonging to the epoch before Huss, such as Dalimil's chronicle in verse, of 1314; a song of 1346, on the battle of Crecy, where King John fell, and other historic legends; Thom. Stitny's book for his children, 1376; Baron Andreas de Duba's judicial constitution of Bohemia, 1402; a politico-didactic poem, by S. Flaska of Richenburg; some allegoric, dramatic, and elegiac compositions, with translations of foreign works. Charles I. of Bohemia, known as Charles IV., emperor of Germany, founded, in 1847, the Benedictine monastery of Emaus, in the new town of Prague, for monks who had fled hither from