practical men, appointed by the government of Great Britain, for the construction of the new houses of parliament. Good building stone is difficult to find in England, and none has yet been used that entirely withstands the disintegrating effect of its moist climate. The stone selected is a yellow dolomite, or magnesian carbonate of lime, of crystalline structure, found in the neighborhood of Bolsover, in Derbyshire. It is of very uniform grain, is worked with ease, and is well adapted for long preserving the sharp lines of the complicated ornamentation to which it is applied in the splendid structures of the British parliament.

BOLSWERT, BOETIUS ADAM, called Bolswert after his native place in Friesland, a Dutch engraver, born about 1580, died in 1634, author of many valuable engravings after designs of Bloemaert and Rubens.-His younger brother, SCHELTIUS ADAM, rose to higher fame in the same art, especially distinguishing himself by his prints after some of the best works of Rubens and Vandyke. Both brothers practised their art at Antwerp.

BOLT, a cylindrical or square bar of metal, with a head at one end and a screw-thread and nut at the other, used in ship and house building, and in machine shops, to bind together timber, metal, or masonry. Bolts are generally made of iron of inferior quality, which must be such that the admixture of foreign substances, which diminishes its cohesive strength and malleability, does not, at the same time, render it more liable to rust. This last consideration is especially important in the United States, where iron exposed in the open air rusts through in a much shorter time than in Europe. Most bolts are made of rod-iron, cut of the required length, and the heads forged, either by turning over the ends of the rods, or by welding to them a head punched, like a nut, out of sheet-iron. The bolts are then passed through the hollow spindle of a lathe, and the threads cut in the usual manner, when nuts are screwed on and the bolts are ready for market. A very important improvement in this manufacture was patented in England in 1857, by Mr. A. H. Renton, who is proprietor of the patent, but not the inventor. It consists in raising up the screw-threads by forging instead of cutting out the metal between them. This is done by placing the end of the bolt heated red hot between 2 steel dies, each similar to a half nut, one of which is made to move up and down above the other. The threads are thus stamped with great facility, and are much tougher than when cut. Moreover, as the cutting of the screw is the most costly part of the work in bolt making, the new process considerably reduces the price of bolts.

BOLTON, or BOULTON, EDMUND, an English antiquary of the 17th century, the author of a number of curious treatises, the chief of which, entitled "Nero Cæsar, or Monarchie Depraved" (Lond. 1624), contains an account of the insurrection under Boadicea.

BOLTON LE MOORS, a manufacturing town and borough of Lancashire, England, 12 miles N. W. of Manchester; pop. 61,171. The Croal, a tributary of the Jewell, divides the place into Great and Little Bolton. The manufacture of woollens was introduced here by the Flemings in 1337, but the inventions of Arkwright and Crompton, both natives of the place, laid the foundation of its present prosperity. It is now one of the principal seats of the cotton manufacture in England. In 1849, there were 53 cotton mills in operation, giving employment to 9,759 persons. Bolton has also extensive founderies and iron works, paper, flax, and saw mills. Numerous coal-pits are worked in the vicinity. The town is well supplied with water. It is connected by canal and railway with Manchester and Bury, and by railway with Liverpool, Preston, Leigh, and Blackburn. It sends 2 members to the house of commons.

BOLZANO, BERNHARD, & Bohemian Roman Catholic theologian and philosopher, born at Prague, Oct. 5, 1781, died Dec. 18, 1848. From 1805 to 1820 he was professor and chaplain at the university of Prague, but was accused of insidiously instilling into the minds of the students the heresies of Schelling and Hegel, and was dismissed from his office. He left many writings, of which his Wissenschaftslehre is the most important.

BOMARSUND, a narrow channel between the island of Alands and Vardo, at the entrance of the gulf of Bothnia. The Russian fortifications to the harbor of Bomarsund were destroyed by the British and French fleets during the war of 1854. The channels leading up to Bomarsund were blockaded at the end of July by 4 British ships and a few small steamers. Shortly afterward strong detachments of the allied fleets arrived, with the admirals Napier and Parseval-Deschênes, followed, Aug. 7, by the line-of-battle ships with Gen. Baraguay d'Hilliers and 12,000 troops, mostly French. The Russian commander, Gen. Bodisco, was compelled to surrender on Aug. 16, the allies continuing to occupy the island until the end of the month, when the whole of the fortification was blown up. The trophies of the victors were 112 mounted guns, 79 not mounted, 3 mortars, 7 field guns, and 2,235 prisoners. The principal military interest offered by this siege is its setting completely at rest the question as to the employment of uncovered masonry in fortifications with land-fronts.

BOMB, or SHELL, a hollow iron shot for heavy guns and mortars, filled with powder, and thrown at a considerable elevation, and intended to act by the force of its fall and explosion. They are generally the largest of all projectiles used, as a mortar, being shorter than any other class of ordnance, can be made so much larger in diameter and bore. Bombs of 10, 11, and 13 inches are now of common use; the French, at the siege of Antwerp in 1831, used a mortar and shells cast in Belgium, of 24 inches calibre. The

BOMB VESSEL, or MORTAR BOAT, is the expression in use for the more modern class of ships constructed to carry mortars. Up to the Russian war, those built for the British service drew 8 or 9 feet water, and carried, beside their 2 10-inch mortars, 4 68-pounders, and 6 18 lb. carronades. When the Russian war made naval warfare in shallow waters and intricate channels a necessity, and mortar boats were required on account of the strong sea-fronts of the Russian fortresses, which defied any direct attack by ships, a new class of bomb vessels had to be devised. The new boats thus built are about 60 feet long, with great breadth of beam, round bows like a Dutch galliot, flat bottoms, drawing 6 or 7 feet water, and propelled by steam. They carry 2 mortars, 10 or 13-inch calibre, and a few field-guns or carronades to repel boarding parties by grape, but no heavy guns. They were used with great effect at Sweaborg, which place they bombarded from a distance of 4,000 yards.

BOMBARDIER, originally the man having charge of a mortar in a mortar battery, but now retained in some armies to designate a noncommissioned rank in the artillery, somewhat below a sergeant. The bombardier generally has the pointing of the gun for his principal duty. In Austria, a bombardier corps is formed as a training school for non-commissioned officers of the artillery, an institution which has contributed much to the effective and scientific mode of serving their guns, for which that branch of the Austrian service is distinguished. BOMBARDMENT, the act of throwing bombs or shells into a town or fortress for incendiary purposes. A bombardment is either desultory, when ships, field batteries, or a proportionally small number of siege batteries, throw shells into a place in order to intimidate the inhabitants and garrison into a hasty surrender, or for some other purpose; or it is regular, and then forms one of the methods of conducting the attack of a fortified place. The attack by regular bombardment was first introduced by the Prussians in their sieges in 1815, after Waterloo, of the fortresses in the north of France. The army and the Bonapartist party being then much dispirited, and the remainder of the inhabitants anxiously wishing for peace, it was thought that the formalities of the old methodical attack in this case might be dispensed with, and a short and heavy bombardment substituted, which would create fires and explosions of magazines, prevent every soul in the place from getting a night's rest, and thus in a short time compel a surrender, either by the moral pressure of the inhabitants on the commander, or by the actual amount of devastation caused, and by out-fatiguing the garrison. The regular attack by direct fire against the defences, though proceeded with, became secondary to vertical fire and shelling from heavy howitzers. In some cases a desultory bombardment was sufficient, in others a regular bombardment had to be resorted to; but in every in

stance the plan was successful; and it is now a maxim in the theory of sieges, that to destroy the resources, and to render unsafe the interior of a fortress by vertical fire, is as important (if not more so) as the destruction of its outer defences by direct and ricochet firing. A bombardment will be most effective against a fortress of middling size, with numerous non-military inhabitants, the moral effect upon them being one of the means applied to force the commander into surrender. For the bombardment of a large fortress, an immense matériel is required. The best example of this is the siege of Sebastopol, in which quantities of shells formerly unheard of were used. The same war furnishes the most important example of a desultory bombardment, in the attack upon Sweaborg by the Anglo-French mortar boats, in which above 5,000 shells and the same number of solid shot were thrown into the place.

BOMBAST, in rhetoric, the statement of mean ideas by lofty words. It is an affectation of energy or inspiration, and is often produced when persons lacking sensibility attempt to describe the passions, or, lacking imagination, attempt to paint fictitious scenes.

BOMBAY (Port. boa or bom bahia, good harbor), a city and presidency of British India.-The city of Bombay is in lat. 18° 57′ N., long. 72° 52′ E., on an island of the same name, to which the adjacent island of Salsette is joined by a causeway. The island was conquered by the Mussulmans in the latter part of the 15th century, and ceded to the Portuguese in the early part of the 16th. In 1661 it came to the English crown as part of the dowry of Catharine of Braganza, wife of Charles II. In 1669 it was transferred by the king to the East India company, with all political powers necessary to its maintenance and defence. Bombay is the seat of government for the presidency, and a naval station. It is well fortified, has a convenient dock-yard, in which several ships of war have been built, and the finest harbor of western India. The population of Bombay island, including Colabba, according to the census of 1849, is 566,119, of which 5,088 are Europeans. The Parsees, the remnant of the ancient fire worshippers, form an important class of the population, not only by numbers, but also by their intellectual capacities, habits of business, and great wealth. They have the management of the dock-yards, which belong to the government. The most distinguished and public spirited of the many wealthy Parsee merchants of Bombay is Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy. Bombay carries on an extensive trade with Europe, and with the coasts of western Asia. It is a depot for the merchandise and produce collected by native traders, and waiting transport to Europe, or other parts of Asia. Cotton is an important article of export from Bombay; in 1850 it exported 150,000,000 lbs. It is principally supplied from the provinces of Guzerat and the Concan, from Malabar, Cutch, and Sinde.

5, 1790, died in Liége, April 7, 1852. He sprung from an influential and wealthy Roman Catholic family of Leyden, and was educated for the church. His exertions in behalf of education caused him to be appointed director of a seminary near Leyden, which appointment he retained until 1815, when the government closed all schools which had been established by the clergy. He now retired to private life, where, in anonymous publications, he vindicated the cause of free education against the government. Without any knowledge of the authorship of these publications, the government appointed Bommel bishop of Liége in 1829. On the outbreak of 1830 he espoused the Belgian cause, and, after the successful issue of the revolution, he retained his post, became the leader of the ultramontane party, opposed freemasonry, refused to transfer his episcopal see to Holland, favored the missions of the Jesuits, and caused the administration of Nothomb, in 1842, to adopt his theory of making the clergy the guardians of education, which, however, was discarded by subsequent administrations. He was a scholar of great erudition, and left several works, among which may be named, especially, "An Exposition of the True Principles of Public Instruction, in its connection with Religion," published in 1840.

BONA, a fortified town on the coast of Algeria, 265 miles E. of Algiers; pop. 10,000. It was the key of the province of Constantine; and, though unimportant in any other point of view, was early occupied by the French in their attack upon Algiers. It is rich in historical recollections; the ruins of the ancient Hippo-Regius, the Numidian capital, are still visible at about a mile distant. The place is not healthy from the neighborhood of the marshes formed by the river Seibous and two smaller affluents. It exports oil, wool, hides, and wax. About 500 vessels enter and clear the port annually. The town was rebuilt 1832, and is now one of the finest in Algeria, with a public garden, and schools for the French, Moorish, and Jewish population.

BONA, GIOVANNI, a Roman cardinal, born at Mondovi, Piedmont, Oct. 10, 1609, died in Rome, Oct. 27, 1674. He was renowned for his piety and learning, a collaborator in the Acta Sanctorum, the author of Rerum Liturgicarum, which is an authority on the service of mass, and of De principiis vitæ Christianæ―a book which has frequently been compared to the "Imitation of Jesus Christ," and of which French translations have appeared in 1693-1728. The last edition of his works is that of Turin 1747-253, in 4 vols.

BONA DEA, the good goddess, a mysterious divinity of the Roman mythology, the wife or the daughter of Faunus. Her worship was secret, performed only by women; men were even required to ignore her name. Her sanctuary was in a cavern in the Aventinian hill, but her festival, which occurred May 1, was celebrated in a separate room in the dwelling of

the consul who then had the fasces. No man was allowed to be present, and all male statues in the house were covered. The wine used at this festival was called milk, and the vessel in which it was kept, mellarium. After the sacrifices, bacchanalian dances were performed. According to Juvenal, licentious abominations marked these festivals. The snake was the symbol of the goddess, and this would point to her being considered as possessing a curative, medical power, and in her sanctuary various herbs were offered for sale.

BONACCA. See BAY ISLANDS.

BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, Vicomte de, an absolutist political philosopher, born of an ancient noble family at Le Monna, near Millau, department of Aveyron, Oct. 2, 1754, died there Nov. 23, 1840. When young he served in the mousquetaires under Louis XV.; resigning his charge at the beginning of the revolution, he became mayor of his commune, but on account of his ardent royalism he emigrated in 1791 and joined the royalist army under the Bourbon princes. Returning to France under Napoleon, he became, with Chateaubriand and Fiévée, editor of the Mercure newspaper, received a small office, but refused to become tutor to the sons of Louis, king of Holland. On the accession of Louis XVIII. he became a person of influence, was member of the chamber of deputies in 1815 and the succeeding years, always favoring an absolutist and reactionary policy; as one of the secretaries of state in 1823 he presided over the censorship of the press. At the revolution of 1830 he resigned his seat as a peer, and retired from public life. His literary labors were devoted exclusively to establishing the theory of power in society, of its origin and extent. He attempted to draw demonstrations from history, philosophy, and religion; and, in imitation of Vico, even from the philological meaning of words. He stoutly denied the validity of reason, and recognized absolutely that of authority. But above the highest civil authority, that of legitimate kings, he affirmed that of religion, or the church and its hierarchy. Authority from above forms the main principle in all his theories. It is in the word, the logos, the faculty of speech derived from above, that the whole power and manifestation of man, as a social and rational being, is to be sought. Bonald opposed every form of selfasserting reason, in philosophy as well as in social order and in politics, and was on this account considered by the absolutists as a firm and luminous defender of society. His complete works were published in 12 volumes, Paris, 1817-'19.-LOUIS JACQUES MAURICE, a French cardinal, third son of the preceding, born Oct. 30, 1787, at Millau. In 1817 he became curate and archdeacon of Chartres, bishop of Puy in 1823, archbishop of Lyons in 1839, and a cardinal in 1841. He is, beside, entitled to the appellation of primate of Gaul. During all his career he has evinced great zeal for the