in many things, in the prosecution of those that were presented for heresy, exceeded what the law allowed; so that it was much desired to have him made an example.” But Elizabeth firmly refused to agree to any act which could either savor of revenge, or tend to impair the authority of de facto governments and princes, by the infliction of punishment on the executors of the laws, which, however barbarous and unholy, were laws duly enacted by the houses of parliament, and sanctioned by the crown. At the period of his death, so bitter was the hatred against him, on the part of the London populace, before whose eyes his cruelties had been in the main enacted, that it was found necessary to bury him at midnight, in order to prevent the danger of a tumult, or of violence to his remains.

BONNET, in fortification, a transverse elevation of the parapet, or traverse and parapet, used either to prevent the enemy from seeing the interior of a work from some elevated point, or, in barbette batteries, to protect men and guns from flanking fire. In these latter batteries, the guns firing over the crest of the parapet have to be placed on high traversing platforms, on which the gun-carriage rests, recoils, and is run forward. The men are, therefore, partly exposed to the fire of the enemy while they serve the gun; and flanking or ricocheting fire is especially dangerous, the object to be hit being nearly twice as high as in batteries with embrasures and low gun-carriages. To prevent this, traverses or cross parapets are placed between the guns, and have to be constructed so much higher than the parapet, that they fully cover the gunners while mounted on the platform. This superstructure is continued from the traverse across the whole thickness of the parapet. It confines the sweep of the guns to an angle of from 90° to 120°, if a gun has a bonnet on either side.-BONNET-À-PRÊTRE, or QUEUE D'HIRONDELLE (swallow tail), in field fortification, is an intrenchment having 2 salient angles, and a reëntering angle between them. The latter is always 90°, the 2 salient angles mostly 60°, so that the 2 outer faces, which are longer than the inner ones, diverge to the rear. This work is sometimes used for small bridge heads, or in other situations where the entrance to a defile has to be defended.

BONNET, CHARLES, a Swiss naturalist and philosopher, born at Geneva, March 13, 1720, died there June 20, 1793. His ancestors were driven out of France by the religious persecution of Protestants in 1572, and emigrated to Geneva, where they held high places in the magistracy. He was destined to pursue the same career, had his inclinations not been drawn in another and a different direction, by reading the works of Réaumur and of Pluche on the natural sciences. The results of his first observations and experiments were published in his 20th year, and were deemed worthy of a man of science. The experiments of Trembley

on the reproduction of certain polyps by means of incision and bisection, induced Bonnet to make similar experiments on other types of organization, and he found that certain so-called worms could be multiplied by the same process. He also discovered that several generations of aphides are produced by a viviparous succession of females, without males. He thought, even, that the aphides are always viviparons, and never lay eggs; what are commonly called eggs, produced in autumn, after the appearance of both males and females, being a sort of cocoon, consisting of the young aphis enclosed in an envelope; and other naturalists, on observing the habits and characteristics of the aphis quer cus, agree with Bonnet in this view. He made some curious experiments on the respiratory organs of caterpillars, and described the structure of the tape-worm. These and other important studies of a kindred nature, were published in his Traité d'insectologie, which appeared in 1745. Nine years later, in 1754, he published a second work of some importance, in which he treats of vegetable physiology, and particularly of the functions of the leaves of plants. His studies on organized bodies (Considérations sur les corps organisés) were published between the years 1762 and 1768, in which he collects together and compares all the best-ascertained facts and opinions on their origin and modes of reproduction. He endeavors to refute the ideas of Buffon, and the so-called epigenesists, and to establish an opinion of his own, with regard to the origin and reproduction of organic forms of life. His opinions on these secrets of nature have been deemed, however, not less vague and problematical than those which he rejected. By the failure of his sight from excessive application, he was, in some measure, driven from the field of observation, where he had been successful, to that of speculative contemplation. His Essai de psychologie, published in 1754, and his Essai analytique des facultés de l'âme, 1760, are nevertheless remarkable productions. He believes the soul to be immaterial and immortal, and, while in the body, to occupy the brain alone, influencing the whole organism through the nervous system. The same ideas are pursued still further in his Contemplation de la nature, published in 1764'65, wherein he endeavors to construct a chain of nature, beginning with the lowest atom of organic being, and gradually rising through successive types of organism, from the vegetable to the lowest forms of animal, and from these again to man, and so on to superior beings, angels and archangels, ad infinitum, ending only in the Deity, as the beginning and the end of all things. His Palingénésie philosophique was published in 1770. In this work he puts forth the idea that the souls of animals are immortal, as well as those of men; but that they undergo some transformation at the hands of the Creator, which causes them to rise progressively in the scale of being. In 1773 he pub

lished a work on religion, entitled Recherches philosophiques sur les preuves du Christianisme, in which he defends revelation against those who impugn its veracity and authenticity. The complete works of Bonnet were published in 8 vols. 4to, at Neufchâtel, in 1779-1783; and again, with illustrations, in 18 vols. 12mo, in 1788.

BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE, comte de, an adventurous French officer of noble descent, born at Coussac (Limousin), July 14, 1675, died in Constantinople, March 27, 1747. He bought a commission in the French guards, 1701, became a colonel of infantry, and served with Vendôme; quarrelled with the accounting officers and the minister of war; and in 1705 and 1706 travelled in Italy, and entered the service of the emperor of Austria as a major-general. In the attack on Turin, he saved the life of his own elder brother, who had been made a prisoner. He accompanied Prince Eugene in his campaigns in Flanders, and fought 2 strange duels during the negotiations at Utrecht, one with a Frenchman, for saying that Louis XIV. aspired to universal monarchy, and the other with a Prussian for saying the contrary. Having gone to Paris in 1717 to sue out his pardon before the parliament, his mother married him to Mlle. de Biron, whom he left 10 days after the ceremony, and never saw again. He returned to Eugene's army, and obtained an important command in Sardinia and Sicily in 1719, but got into difficulty, was sent to his regiment at Brussels, fought several duels, and fled into Holland, where he was imprisoned in the citadel of Antwerp. Thence he went to Vienna, where he was stripped of his rank and exiled. He went subsequently to Venice, to Bosnia, and finally turned Turk, in 1724. Subsequently, acquiring fame under the name of Achmet Pasha, he attempted to organize the Turkish army after the European system, fought with distinction against Russia and Persia, and finally was appointed by the government to important offices. But his rapid advancement excited much jealousy, and the sultan sent him into exile; when the pope offered him a refuge at Rome, and the king of the Two Sicilies a pension. A galley was sent for him, but he died before he could escape. Many memoirs were written of his life; those published by the prince de Ligne, in 1817, are considered the most authentic.

BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L. E., a colonel in the United States army, born in France, a cadet at West Point in April, 1813, a brevet 2d lieutenant of light artillery, Dec. 11, 1815, was transferred with the same rank to the 8th infantry, March 12, 1819. Oct. 4, 1825, he became a captain, but was dropped from the rolls, May 31, 1834, having, while on furlough, gone on an expedition in the prairies, and not been heard from for a longer time than the regulations allowed. Having returned, however, he was made a major by brevet, July 15, 1845;

brevet lieut.-colonel, Aug. 20, 1847, for gallant conduct at Churubusco and at Contreras, in Mexico; and lieut.-colonel of the 7th infantry, May 7, 1849. He is the author of a "Journal of an Expedition to the Rocky Mountains," from the materials of which Washington Irving has written a most interesting book of western life.

BONNIVARD, FRANÇOIS DE, a Genevan chronicler and politician, born 1497, died about 1571. An incorruptible opponent of the schemes of the duke of Savoy for conquering Geneva, he was, in 1530, arrested by the agents of Savoy, and imprisoned in the dungeons of the castle of Chillon. This event is the subject of Lord Byron's poem, entitled the "Prisoner of Chillon." He was restored to liberty 6 years later, Geneva having become free and reformed. He was employed from 1546 to 1552 in writing the chronicles of Geneva, from the time of the Romans to 1530. He was versed in Latin literature, in theology, and history, and left several works, which have remained in manuscript.

Of

BONNY RIVER, one of the arms of the Niger, enters the bight of Biafra at its delta between the Old and New Calabar rivers. Near its mouth is Bonnytown, which was a place of great resort for slavers some years ago, and it is estimated that at one time as many as 20,000 slaves were annually sold there. late the traffic has greatly decreased, but it is supposed that 2,000 slaves are still exported from Bonny river every year. The British procure here large quantities of palm oil, and the trade in this commodity has increased in proportion to the diminution of the slave trade. The country around Bonny river is low, flat, swampy, and very unhealthy.

BONNYCASTLE, JOHN, an English mathematician, died at Woolwich, May 15, 1821. He was for more than 40 years one of the mathematical masters at Woolwich, and published introductions to arithmetic, algebra, astronomy, geometry, and trigonometry, an edition of Euclid's Elements," and a general history of mathematics from the French of Bossut.CHARLES, son of the preceding, first professor of natural philosophy in the university of Virginia, born at Woolwich, in England, died at Charlottesville, Va., in Oct. 1840. He travelled with Lord Pomfret, assisted his father in preparing mathematical text-books, wrote various articles for cyclopædias, and when the university of Virginia was founded was selected to occupy in it the chair of natural philosophy. He arrived in this country in 1825, was transferred to the professorship of mathematics in 1827, and was the author of a treatise on "Inductive Geometry" and of several memoirs on scientific subjects.

BONOMI, GIUSEPPE, an Italian architect, born at Rome in 1739, died in England, March 9, 1808. He went to England in 1767, and, with the exception of 1 year in Italy, passed the rest of his life there. He was elected an asso

ciate of the royal academy, but, notwithstanding the exertions of Sir Joshua Reynolds, could not succeed in becoming an academician. The mansion at Roseneath, in Dumbartonshire, for the duke of Argyle, is his masterpiece.

BONONCINI, or BUONONCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, an Italian composer, born at Modena in 1672, died about 1750. His proficiency on the violoncello gained him admittance into the band of the emperor Leopold at Vienna, where, at the age of 18, in emulation of Scarlatti, he wrote an opera called Camilla, which was favorably received. In England, for several years, scarcely any opera was tolerated which did not contain some of Bononcini's airs, and upon the almost simultaneous arrival of himself and Handel in London, notwithstanding the superiority of the latter, 2 parties, the one for Bononcini and the other for Handel, were formed, between whom an exciting contest was waged for several years. Gradually, however, Bononcini's popularity waned, and having been detected in an act of musical plagiarism, he left England in 1733, found his way to Paris and Vienna, and finally went to Venice, where all traces of him are lost.

BONPLAND, AIME, a French traveller and naturalist, born at La Rochelle, Aug. 22, 1773. His father was a physician, and the son studied the same profession, but before he had completed his studies he was called by the revolutionary authorities into the naval service, and acted as surgeon on a man-of-war. When peace was restored he went to Paris, and became a pupil of Corvisart, and a friend of Alexander von Humboldt, who was his fellowstudent, to whom he taught botany and anatomy, receiving in return instructions in physics and mineralogy. Bonpland was the companion of Humboldt in the long and famous scientific journey described in Humboldt's "Voyage to the Equinoctial Regions of the New World." On his return, after an absence of 5 years, Bonpland presented his collections to the government, and the emperor granted him a pension. Having presented to the empress Josephine a collection of flower seeds from the West Indies, they were planted at Malmaison, and as Bonpland went thither weekly to attend to them, the empress became acquainted with him, and conferred on him the place of intendant of Malmaison, which then was vacant. Made more comfortable in his circumstances, he devoted himself to the publication of his travels, and became intimate with Gay-Lussac, Arago, and the leading scientific men of his day. When Napoleon was dethroned, Bonpland advised him to retire to Mexico, and there watch the course of events. He was at the bedside of Josephine when she died. He then returned to America, sailing from Havre in 1816 for Buenos Ayres, where he was for a time warmly welcomed. Soon, however, the new government became jealous of him, and he again set out on his travels, intending to cross the pampas, the province of

Santa Fé, Chaco, and Bolivia. On this expedition he visited the old missions of the Jesuits in Paraguay, where he was arrested by the agents of the dictator Francia in 1821, who detained him in the country, forbidding him to visit Assumption, and forcing him to support himself by the practice of medicine in an Indian village. In this condition he remained for 10 years, until Feb. 2, 1831, when he returned to Buenos Ayres. He afterward married an Indian woman, and retired to a plantation near Borja, in Uruguay. Bonpland has written voluminously and delightfully on the natural history of the Antilles and South America. One of the most beautiful works ever printed is his Nova Genera et Species Plantarum, 12 vols. folio, with 700 colored plates (Paris, 1815-1829).

BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE, a Swiss author, born at Bern, Sept. 3, 1745, died in Geneva, Feb. 3, 1832. Previous to the revolution he held various public offices, and was celebrated for hospitality to literary men. Subsequently he resided in Italy, and for several years at Copenhagen with his friend Frederica Brun. The latter part of his life was mostly spent in Geneva. He was personally acquainted with Jean Jacques Rousseau, whose writings and conversation had a powerful effect in stimulating Bonstetten's enthusiasm for social questions. Some of his writings are in the German, and others in the French language. His principal works are Recherches sur la nature et les lois de l'imagination (Geneva, 1807), and Etudes de l'homme (Geneva, 1821).

BONTEKOE, WILLEM ISBRAND, a Dutch navigator, noted for his miraculous escape from a fire which destroyed the Niew Hoorn, a vessel under his command, bound, in 1618, from Holland to the East Indies. While striving to extinguish the fire, which broke out on the ves sel's arrival at Batavia, 66 of his crew deserted him, the other 134 perished, and the captain seizing a spar which was floating in the water, reached the long-boat, upon which the deserting crew had made their escape. They arrived at Sumatra in 14 days, were driven off by the natives, put to sea again, and finally returned in safety to Batavia. The captain, who subsequently took a part in the war in China, under Cornelis, in 1681, wrote an account of his adventurous voyage, which was published at Amsterdam.

BONTHAIN, a state of the Macassar nation, in the S. W. peninsula of Celebes; separated on the N. by Mt. Lampoo-Batang from Boni, bounded E. by Boolekumba, W. by Tooratea, and S. by the Java sea. The town of Bonthain, in lat. 5° 32′ S., long. 121° 52′ E., is the residence of a Dutch genaghebber, or superintendent. This territory, along with that of Boolekumba, was wrested from the Macassar nation, after a spirited resistance, in 1824-25. The country is very mountainous. On the table lands in the vicinity of Lampoo-Batang, and at elevations of 3,000 and 4,000 feet, there is a cool, invigorating, temperate climate; and in the soil of this re

gion the common potato, turnips, cabbages, and other products of our kitchen gardens, have been cultivated in perfection. The town of Bonthain is connected with the free port of Macassar by an excellent post road 50 miles long. BONVICINO, ALESSANDRO, called IL MORETTo, an Italian painter, born at Brescia about the commencement of the 16th century, died in 1564. He studied with Titian at Venice, and was among the first to introduce the style of that master into Brescia. He caught with great success the coloring and expression of Titian's works, particularly in his portraits. Subsequently he adopted an entirely new style, very much after the manner of Raphael, which is so rich and attractive that, according to Lanzi, many dilettanti have gone out of their way to visit Brescia and see his pictures. While in brilliancy and freshness of coloring, in the arrangement of his draperies and other accessories, he shows the influences of the Venetian school, his noble and expressive figures have much of the fire and grace which may be seen in Raphael.

BONZES (from the Japanese, term for the pious), generally applied to the priests of Fo or Buddha, in China, Japan, Cochin China, Burmah, &c., without regard to the sectarian distinctions existing among them. Though differing in many minor points of doctrine, they may be said to teach one fundamental creed. The various sects hate each other cordially, but have many customs in common. They profess celibacy, practise austerities of various kinds, and dwell together in monasteries. They shave the head and beard, never cover the former, even in the severest weather, preserve a profound silence in public, and are supposed to lead a life of continual prayer and contemplation. They frequently have idols of hideous form, which they honor with many superstitious rites. To instruct or improve the masses forms no part of their occupation, and would, doubtless, be beyond their ability. Their avarice is equal to their ignorance. No opportunity for extorting money from the people by the sale of charms, trifles of various sorts, and paper robes, which are worn by the dying, and supposed to secure admission to paradise, is ever neglected. They sell even their prayers, and their sermons usually close with an earnest exhortation to the multitude to make their peace with God by being liberal to his ministers. The religion of Fo does not admit priestesses, but there are female devotees called biconis or bonzies, who live in communities under a superior of their own sex, and profess the same virtues and way of life as the priests. The education of females is often intrusted to them. There are some monasteries in which the devotees of both sexes reside, and temples in which they chant their prayers together, the men on one side, the women on the other.

BOOBY, the English name for a genus of pelecanida; dysporus of Illiger, morus of Vieillot, les fous of the French; separated from the true

pelicans by Brisson, under the name of sula. The term booby is applied by navigators to that species (sula fusca of Brisson) which inhabits the desolate islands and coasts of warm climates in almost every part of the globe. All the old voyagers have left accounts, perfectly consentaneous, concerning the stupidity of these birds. Bligh, Dampier, De Gennes, the vicomte de Querhoent, and many others, testify to the passive immobility with which they sit in rows, 2 and 2, along the shores, and suffer themselves to be beaten to death with clubs, attempting only a weak defence by pecking at their aggressors, and never making so much as an effort to take wing. Dampier says that in the Alacrane islands, on the coast of Yucatan, the crowds of these birds were so great that he could not pass their haunts without being inconvenienced by their pecking. He also states that he succeeded in making some fly away by the blows which he bestowed on them; but the greater part remained, in spite of all his efforts to compel them to take flight. The boobies seldom swim and never dive, but take the fish, which is their prey, by darting down from on high, with unerring aim, upon such kinds as swim near the surface, and instantly rising again into the air with their booty. In the performance of this exploit they are cruelly harassed and persecuted by the frigates, or man-of-war birds (albatrosses), which give chase to them the instant they see them rising laden with their prey, and force them to disgorge it, when they themselves appropriate the meal, deterred by no delicacy of appetite. This story has been denied, but the weight of evidence confirms it; and, recognizing the similar habit of the whiteheaded eagle toward the osprey, of the great arctic gull toward the fishing terns, and of other predatory birds toward their more industrious and peaceful congeners, there is no cause for doubting its truth. They walk with extreme difficulty, and while at rest on land stand nearly erect, propped, like the penguins, on the stiff feathers of the tail. It is suggested by naturalists that the absence of the common instinct of self-preservation in this bird is to be attributed not to stupidity, but to inability to get away, the extreme length of its wings and comparative shortness of its legs rendering it difficult for the bird to rise at all off a level surface, and almost impossible to do so in a hurry. They ordinarily lay their eggs, each female bird 2 or 3 in number, in rude nests on ledges of rock covered with herbage; but Dampier states that, in the isle of Aves, they build nests in trees, though they have been always observed in other places to nest on the ground, which is a circumstance very unusual in birds, since, above all other particulars, they are invariable in their manner of nidification.

BOODROOM, BOUDROUM, BAUDRUN, or BoDRUM (probably the ancient Halicarnassus), a seaport town of Asia Minor, on the N. shore of the gulf of Cos; pop. about 11,000, consisting chiefly of Greeks and Turks. It has a small but

good harbor, frequented by Turkish cruisers, and its inhabitants are partially engaged in building ships of war. The streets are narrow and dirty; the houses, of stone, generally have gardens attached. A castle built by the knights of Rhodes, a governor's residence, and some mosques, are among the principal edifices. There is also a ruined amphitheatre, and other remains of antiquity.

BOOK, by the law of England, is "construed to mean and include every volume, part or division of a volume, pamphlet, sheet of letterpress, sheet of music, map, chart, or plan separately published;" a definition sustained by etymology, but more comprehensive than the ordinary acceptation, which includes, primarily, only a printed literary composition, but permits a secondary application, as in case of books of account, to a bound volume of blank printing or writing material. The word is derived, not from the form, but from the material, boc being the Saxon equivalent of liber, the inner rind of a tree, which was once employed for writing upon. It has, however, received an application anterior to its own origin, and is used with reference to written tablets of stone and metal which preceded the introduction of more flexible material. In its widest sense, it dates from the most remote antiquity. The ten commandments were written on slabs of stone; the Babylonians and Egyptians traced inscriptions on bricks and rocks; sheets of wood, ivory, and various metals, and, subsequently, a great variety of pliable substances, animal and vegetable, crude and prepared, have been used for the purpose. Among the Greeks and Romans, books of wood were common; part of one which had contained the laws of Solon was preserved at Athens until the 1st century. For the more important purposes, the laws and edicts, they also employed ivory, bronze, and other metals, and for the common needs of business, such as the recording of contracts and the making of wills, for the courtesies of social life, the letters of love or friendship, they had the diptycha and tabulæ, or pugillaria, sheets covered with wax, to be written upon with a stilus, and protected from contact by a raised margin, or opposite projections in the centres. Two of these tablets, of the date of 169, were discovered, not many years since, in Transylvania, and one of the year 1301 is preserved in the Florentine museum. Many specimens of ancient books still exist, which prove, without historical evidence, how various are the materials which suffice for the wants of man in an unlettered age. The antiquary Montfaucon, in 1699, purchased at Rome a leaden book of 6 thin leaves about 4 inches long by 3 wide, with covers and hinges of the same metal. The volume contained Egyptian gnostic figures and other unintelligible writing. In the university of Göttingen is a Bible of palm leaves, containing 5,375 leaves, and other similar books are elsewhere preserved. Among the Calmuck Tartars was found a collection of books that were

long and narrow, the leaves very thick and made of bark covered with varnish, the ink being white on a black ground. M. Santander possessed a beautiful Hebrew Pentateuch, written on 57 skins of oriental leather, sewed together with threads or strips of the same material: it formed a roll of 113 French feet in length. The shape of wooden and metal books was square, but, when more convenient material, such as parchment and papyrus, was introduced, the cylindrical form was adopted. The sheets, fastened together at the edges, were attached to a cylindrus or staff, round which they were rolled; whence volume, from volvo, to roll. At each end of the cylindrus was the umbilicus or cornus, a boss by which it could be turned, and the volume was read by unrolling the scroll so as to expose successively its several sheets or pagina. The title was written generally in red, on fine vellum, and pasted on the outside, which was dyed with cedrus or saffron. Much labor and expense was often involved in the ornamentation of books, and pleasant conceits were sometimes conveyed by their color. The practice of perfuming the pages to which Martial alludes,

When the page of cedar smells,

And with royal purple swells,

was not abandoned until within a quite recent period. Lord Treasurer Burleigh, instructing the vice-chancellor of Cambridge concerning the proper presentation of some volumes to Elizabeth, cautions him to "regard that the book had no savor of spike, which commonly bookbinders did seek to add to make their books savor well." Scrolls were superseded by codices, or square books, the advantages of which are alluded to by Martial, in whose time they seem to have been getting into general use. Modifications in form accompanied the various changes made in material, until the shape and general proportions which now obtain were adopted, though important differences in bulk, arising as well from the condition of art as the fashion of the times, distinguish books made up till a not very remote period from those of the present day. The slow and laborious method of transcribing, which, until the invention of printing, was the only mode by which literary compositions could be multiplied, secured to the body a practical reverence in which the spirit it contained did not always participate. The value of books, depending not only upon beauty of chirography, accuracy of transcription, and elaborateness of ornamentation, but upon the favor in which particular authors happened to be held, seems to have gone to each extreme; instances of extraordinary cheapness standing side by side with others of almost incredible dearness. According to Boeckh, in Athens, "a small book for the purpose of recording a contract (ypaμμaridiov), that is, a small, commonly wooden diptychon, consisting of 2 wax tablets, was estimated by Demosthenes at 2 chalci (of an obolus, less than 1 cent). Wooden tablets