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as, for example, 10,000 of Livingstone's "Travels in South Africa," and 30,000 of Brock's "Life of Gen. Havelock;" other works have great circulation. The serials of Dickens are estimated to have a sale of 35,000, and Macaulay's history as many as 40,000. By the census of 1851 there were in England and Wales 6,905 booksellers and publishers; in Scotland, 1,486; and, according to good authority, there were 168 in Ireland.-In France, bookselling centres in Paris, where there are about 400 bookstores. In the sale of books but little machinery is employed, neither trade sales nor fairs being held. The usages between publishers and authors are somewhat peculiar, for the more popular writers rarely dispose entirely of their copyrights either for a fixed sum or a percentage. They often sell the right to print a certain number in a certain style, which are to be sold at a price determined by themselves, and it not infrequently happens that 2 or more publishers will issue editions of the same work. The "Edinburgh Review" remarks upon a phase of French literature analogous to that which has been referred to in the account given of bookselling in England: "Few even among the best informed readers of the literature of the day will be prepared for the fact that, side by side with the known productions of the press of Paris, there has existed from time immemorial in France another, and, in its own sphere, hardly less influential literature, addressing a totally different public, enjoying a separate and peculiar circulation, and possessing an organization, both for production and distribution, almost entirely independent of the ordinary machinery of literary commerce. Still less will they be prepared to learn that the number of volumes thus annually put into circulation throughout the length and breadth of France amounts to nearly 10,000,000, at prices ranging from a franc down to a sou; or for the still more extraordinary fact, that among this enormous number, with the exception of a few of the modern novels, hardly a single volume-at least in the form in which it is circulated by the hawkers-is the production of any writer whose works have ever attracted the attention of our readers. So that we are led to the singular conclusion, that a substratum of publications of enormous extent supplies the demand and feeds the curiosity of the lower orders, utterly unconnected with the higher creations of French genius, coarser in form and in substance, and very slightly affected by the vicissitudes of taste and opinion." The Journal de la Librairie of Paris has prepared some statistics of the book trade in France, from which it appears that, from Nov. 1, 1811, to Dec. 31, 1855, or 44 years and 2 months, no less than 271,994 books have been published in France. This number includes books written in foreign languages, as well as Greek and Latin authors. The number of engravings, drawings, lithographs, maps, and plans, reaches 47,

425, and to this number must be added 17,449 musical compositions-making altogether 336,868 publications. In the year 1855 alone, 8,235 literary works were published in France, with 1,105 musical compositions. The engravings, maps, lithographs, issued within the same period, amount to 2,857 issues-the total being 12,217. Of the 44 years included in the statistics of the Journal de la Librairie, it appears that 1855, with the exception of 1825, was the most productive. In 1825, the number of issues amounted to 8,265. The figures from 1851 to 1854 run thus: in 1851, 7,350; in 1852, 8,264; in 1853, 8,060; in 1854, 8,336. In 1854, 1855, and 1856, the value of books imported into France amounted to $1,175,000, of books exported during the same time, $7,900,000. With regard to the countries to which the exports of books were made, Belgium ranks by far the highest, and England next; then follow in order as named-Switzerland, Sardinia, United States, Germany and Spain (equal), Mexico, Portugal, Tuscany, the Two Sicilies, Turkey and Egypt, Russia, and the Papal States. For imports, Belgium still stands highest; then Germany, England, Spain, Sardinia, United States, Holland.-During the year 1854, 861 works in the Russian language, and 451 in foreign languages, were printed in Russia, beside 2,940 scientific and literary treatises in the different periodicals. The number of authors was 1,239, that of printing offices, for works in the Russian language, 85, of which 45 were in St. Petersburg, and 16 in Moscow. In the same year 886,425 volumes were imported. In 1855, 1,148 original works and 91 translations were published, and the imports were 1,191,745 volumes. In Poland, in 1855, 22,608 works were imported.-Some statistics upon publishing in Austria, prepared by Dr. Wurzbach, show that, for the year 1854, the total number of publications was 24,039-12,983 German, 6,136 Italian, 1,482 Hungarian, 815 Polish, 757 Cechic, 453 Slavic, 363 Croatian, 244 Russniak, 214 Servian, 171 Roumanian. Vienna and Milan are the principal places of publication, after which comes Hungary. During this period 500 books have been issued in Hungary, the smallest number in the Cechic language. Trieste and its vicinity have published 221, the Tyrol 170, and Poland 169. In Croatia have been published 25, Carinthia 18, Dalmatia 15, Austrian Silesia 14, Banat 8, the Military Circle 4, Bukowina 2. In Bohemia there are 7,874 inhabitants for one publication, in Hungary 9,555, and in southern Austria 979. Of the 24,000 publications, 1,388 were theological, 812 sermons and morals, 1,806 educational, 3,579 on law, 5,647 on commerce, 792 natural science, 667 history, 222 geography, 155 poetry, 146 plays, 546 romances, beside journals.-In the 7 years from 1847 to 1854 the following numbers of books are stated to have appeared in Norway: in philology 87, metaphysics 23, pedagogical science 65, theology 18, law 63,

politics and national economy 46, medical science 26, natural philosophy 39, rural economy 48, technology 12, history 123, nautical ani commercial science 33, military science 28, mathematics 28, belles-lettres 187, miscellaneous writings 6-a total, during the 7 years, of 1,027 volumes, or, on an average, 146 every year. Of these, 870 were original works, 139 translations, and the remaining 18 reprints of older books. More than twothirds of the number, viz., 791 volumes, were printed at Christiania (the seat of the university), whereas only 100 appeared at Bergen (the principal commercial town), 27 at Drontheim, 26 at Stavanger, 19 at Skien, 11 at Christiansand, &c. In order to buy a copy of every book appearing in Norway, a sum of 90 to 100 species ($100 to $125) per annum would suffice. The whole literature of the country since 1814 may be purchased for a little more than 2,500 species. In the 9 years from 1848 to 1856, 1,799 printed works, on an average, have appear ed annually in Holland; a figure which, when compared with a population of only about 3,000,000, is by no means unimportant. Beside, it has been regularly increasing ever since 1851; in 1856 the sum total of new works amounted to 1,859. Of these, 349 were devoted to theology, 265 to philology and literary history, and 188 were school books. Political economy was represented by 138 works, history by 112, natural philosophy by 52, mathematics by 25, jurisprudence by 48, metaphysics by only 17. Belles-lettres mustered 142 works, of which 57 were novels. The number of publishers and booksellers amounts to 900, that of printers to 287, and that of paper factories to 134.-In Greece, the Ionian islands, and Turkey, there were 188 books published in 1851, and in 1852, 164: 120 in Greece; 29, Ionian Islands; 7, Turkey; 107, Athens; 8, Syra; 3, Patras; 1, Nauplia; 1, Tripolitza; 14, Corfu; 8, Cephalonia; 7, Zante; 2, Constantinople; 4, Smyrna; and 1, Bucharest.-During 6 months of 1856 it is stated that over 400 books were published in Piedmont, of which a large proportion were polemical essays; the number includes 12 volumes of poetry, 7 romances, 5 dramas, 30 histories, and 12 historical memoirs. -Bookselling in America presents no very notable historical incidents. The first of the profession mentioned by Thomas in his "History of Printing," is Hezekiah Usher, of Boston, known to have been in the business as early as 1652. His son, John Usher, succeeded him, and is thus spoken of by Dunton, who visited Boston in 1686: "This trader makes the best figure in Boston; he's very rich, adventures much to sea, but has got his estate by bookselling." Of books at that time offered for sale the great majority were, of course, imported, and were kept in shops with other goods, as Benedict Arnold combined the business of druggist and bookseller; but, more frequently, the association was of nearer kin-printer, binder, and bookseller, a natural connection, which

continued as a rule for many years, and is illustrated by the familiar instance of Franklin. In 1732, Richard Fry, an Englishman and bookseller of Boston, advertised: "Whereas, it has been the common method of the most curious merchants of Boston to procure their books from London, this is to acquaint those gentle men that I, the said Fry, will sell all sorts of accompt books, done after the most acute manner, for 20 per cent. cheaper than they can have them from London. *** For the pleasing entertainment of the polite parts of mankind, I have printed the most beautiful poems of Mr. Stephen Duck, the famous Wiltshire poet. It is a full demonstration to me that the people of New England have a fine taste for good sense and polite learning, having already sold 1,200 of those poems." The first convention of booksellers for the regulation of trade seems to have been held in Boston, 1724; it was for the special purpose of increasing the prices of certain works. Toward the close of the last century bookselling began to take rank among the most considerable commercial pursuits, though it then only foreshadowed its present comparative importance. Works of standard character, involving large expenditures, were undertaken by publishers, who, in such cases, usually subscribed together, as a guarantee for the printer's outlay. The trade was conducted upon established principles, and innovators were held in poor esteem. All these usages were, however, disturbed by competition, and after the publication of the Waverley novels, of which rival editions were issued, the individual members of the trade acted more independently of each other, and their customs afterward partook of a less narrow spirit. The American company of booksellers was founded in 1801. Books were formerly sold in sheets, to be bound as purchasers might desire, a practice which no longer obtains. The universal diffusion of education in America, and the inquiring mental character of its people, not only increased the circulation of books but reduced their price, and the old-fashioned veneration which literary works had once inspired experienced no little modification. Externals became of small consequence to the great body of readers, and works were purchased not so much for preservation as for immediate reading. This is not peculiar to America, for in all the principal publishing countries it appears to be now understood that the proportion of expense for mere externals should, within the limits of good taste and sufficient perspicuity and durability, be reduced to the lowest standard. The practical advantages of cheapness were at first demonstrated by the absence of international copyright, which brought competition to the basis solely of mechanical excellence and lowness of price; and although, for a time, there was a tendency to consult cheapness to the sacrifice of other quite as essential qualities, a reaction, experienced within the last few years, promises to correct that which

the popular appreciation of the truest economy had agreed to condemn. The number of different publishers of American books in the years 1856 and 1857 was 385, principally of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia. Many books emanate from Cincinnati, and the indications are that a large independent trade will, before many years, be established in the West. There are 2 departments of the book publishing business in the United States pretty clearly separated: those who sell books through the retail stores, and those who sell by personal applicationthe makers of what are technically called trade, and the makers of subscription books-books which buyers are expected to come for, and books which go to them. The regular trade is divided into publishers, jobbers, and retailers. Jobbers purchase of publishers in large quantities, and, consequently, on favorable terms, which enables them to supply retailers at the publishers' rates. Retailers are scattered all over the country, in the cities and smallest villages; in the latter often connecting with their stock of literature the miscellaneous assortment of the country store. Increase of bookselling has led to classification, and the trade has been gradually separating into several divisions or specialities, the principal of which are miscellaneous, religious, scientific, educational, musical, legal, medical, agricultural, and foreign booksellers; but the distinction is by no means fixed or complete. Assuming them for the sake of convenience, we may designate still further subdivisions: the miscellaneous, inclining toward particular classes, as poetry, novels, &c., and the religious, representing the different churches. Beside these, publishers of subscription books may be also divided into those who issue books in small parts, and those who issue in complete volumes. The style in which business is done also varies greatly. Many publishers get out a rather regular succession of works, each of which is advertised to a certain extent, and then abandoned to its own merits and fortune. Others publish few books, but "push" them with great energy. The pushing process is performed through the facilities afforded by press, and the publisher seeks by every ingenious expedient to arouse public curiosity. Among the greatest successes may be mentioned, "Uncle Tom's Cabin," of which 310,000 copies have been sold; "The Lamplighter," 90,000; "Shady Side," 42,000; "Fern Leaves," 70,000; "Ruth Hall," 55,000; "Alone," "The Hidden Path," ," "Moss Side," each 25,000; Longfellow's "Hiawatha," 43,000; "Life of Barnum," 45,000; "Life of Amos Lawrence," 23,000; Hugh Miller's works, 50,000; Sears's "Wonders of the World," 100,000; of larger works, "Benton's 30 Years' View," 2 vols. 8vo, 55,000; Kane's "Arctic Explorations," 2 vols. Svo, 65,000, paying $65,000 copyright; Harpers' "Pictorial Bible," $20 a copy, 25,000; and Goodrich's "History of All Nations," 2 vols. 8vo ($7), 30,000. School books occasionally attain an enormous and permanent

the

circulation, and their publishers compete energetically for the market. Agents are often employed at great expense to visit the various schools for the purpose of substituting new books for old, receiving little or nothing for the difference in value; though this ruinous practice is becoming discontinued. Of Mitchell's geographical books there is a probable issue of 1,000 per day, and of Davies's mathematical series, 300,000 were circulated in 1857; of Sanders's "Readers" about the same; and many other school-books have an annual sale of from 20,000 to 50,000. The books of Noah Webster have, however, reached the greatest circulation. Of the "Elementary Spelling Book,” 35,000,000 have been sold, and its annual issue is over 1,000,000. Webster's dictionaries, of which there are 8 abridgments, have had an aggregate sale of nearly 2,000,000, and about 100,000 are sold annually of the "Primary." The publication of music books has been very successful, more especially collections of church music, or psalm and hymn tunes, glee books, juvenile musical books, and instrumental instructors of all kinds. "The Handel and Haydn Collection," by Dr. Lowell Mason, published 30 years since, has passed through nearly 40 editions, and “The Carmina Sacra," by the same author, has had a circulation of about 500,000 copies, yielding a copyright of about $50,000. Of late there has been a steady and rapid increase in the issues of books in the more advanced departments, such as works on the science of music, harmony, counterpoint, and the like, but there seems to be little demand for musical belleslettres. In law and medical bookselling, the United States holds a high rank as compared with other countries. The circulation of these books is very large. A peculiar feature in American bookselling is to be found in agricultural publications. One house in New York is devoted to this department exclusively. It has a list of 100 different works, by 63 authors, of whom about 50 are American. The books are in good demand, especially those on horses and stock; 5,000 of Linsley's

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Morgan Horse" were sold in the first 6 months of publication; Allen's "Domestic Animals" has had an issue of 12,000, and Dadd's “Modern Horse Doctor," 14,000. The interest taken in the introduction of the new sugar-canes has exhausted 4,000 of Olcott's "Sorgho and Imphee," and 8,000 of 2 pamphlets on the same subject. A class of books which are occasionally overlooked in connection with this subject are those called cheap publications. These have a very large circulation, frequently as great as 200,000 copies. "The Widow's Walk," by Sue, and "The Dancing Feather," by J. H. Ingraham, with, no doubt, many others, have exceeded that number. At 25 cents per copy, these books are sometimes bought by the public to the extent of $50,000 each, an amount much beyond that paid for works of higher literary pretensions, published in more elegant style. In addition to all these, we have the

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In the preface to the "American Catalogue of Books," by Sampson Low, Son & Co., of London, it is stated that "during 1852, unavoidably including many really published in the preceding 6 months, we find there were 966 new books and new editions, 312 of which were reprints of English books, and 56 translations from other countries. During 1853, 879 new books and new editions, including 298 reprints of English books, and 37 translations. During 1854, 765 new books and new editions, of which 277 were reprints of English books, and 41 translations. During 1855, 1,092 new books and new editions, including 250 reprints of English books, and 38 translations. And during the 6 months to July, 1856, 751 new books and new editions, of which but 102 were reprints of English books, and 26 translations." From a careful computation and analysis of "Norton's Annual Book List for 1855," we have the following:

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Law . Medical

All other..

Total,

150,000 200,000 250,000 1,000,000 1,300,000 2,000,000

|$2,500,000 $3,500,000|$5,500,000 $12,500,000

The same writer estimates the amount of the production of the American book trade for the year 1856 at about $16,000,000, which he divides as follows: city of New York, $6,000,000; rest of the state of New York, $600,000; Boston, $2,500,000; New England states, $600,000; Philadelphia, $3,400,000; Cincinnati, $1,300000; north-western states, $100,000; District of Columbia, by the government, $750,000, and the southern and south-western states $750,000. The amounts of annual importations of books from 1851 to 1857 inclusive, are:

1851

1852.

1853.

1854.

.$494,152 1855. 567,715 1556.. 723,221 1857 916,889

.$893,371

767,303 874,404

A peculiarity of the book business in the United

States, is the holding of trade sales-semi-annual auctions, in New York, Philadelphia, and Cincinnati-to which publishers contribute, and which are attended by retailers. These sales have been in successful operation for about 30 years, and annually dispose of books to the amount of from $600,000 to $1,000,000.

BOOLAK, BOULAK, or BULAK, an Egyptian town on the Nile, and the port of Cairo; pop. 5,000. Its site was once an island, but that part of the river which separated it from Cairo has been filled up. In 1799 Boolak was burned by the French. Mehemet Ali rebuilt it, and established extensive cotton-spinning, weaving, and printing works, a school of engineering, and a printing establishment, from which is issued a weekly newspaper in Arabic. town contains a naval arsenal, a dockyard, and a custom-house, and is surrounded by the country residences of numerous Egyptian grandees.

The

BOOLEKUMBA, a territory of the Macassar nation, in the S. W. peninsula of Celebes, bounded N. by Boni, E. by the bay of Boni, S. by the Java sea, and W. by Bonthain; area 190 sq. m.; pop. 15,000. It was the scene in 1824 of many severe conflicts between the Dutch and the Bugis and Macassar tribes. The natives repulsed the Europeans with severe losses in 4 different engagements; but were finally subdued by an overwhelming military and naval force commanded by Gen. Van Geen. Boolekumba, chief town of this territory, situated on the coast, opposite Saleyer, lat. 5° 33′ S., long.

120° 13' E., is the residence of a Dutch gezaghebber, or superintendent.

his ignominious death so excited the very soldiers who had apprehended him, that they marched off to Alighur and incited their comrades there to mutiny. The English officers fled to Agra. About Oct. 1, Col. Greathead attacked the mutineers near here, silenced their artillery, drove them from a strong position, and charged and pursued them through the town with considerable loss on both sides.

BOOM (Dutch, boom, a beam), in sea language, a long spar for spreading out the clew or corner of certain sails, as the jib boom, studding-sail boom, main boom, &c.—Also, an iron cable or barricade of spars joined together and stretched across a river or harbor, to prevent the passage of the enemy's ships.

BOOLUNDSHAHUR, a British district of Hindostan, under the lieutenant-governorship of the N. W. provinces, between lat. 28° 3' and 28° 43′ N., long. 77° 28' and 78° 32′ E.; bounded N. by Meerut, S. by Alighur, E. by Moradabad and Budaon, W. by Goorgaon and Delhi; length from N. W. to S. E. 80 miles; breadth from N. E. to S. W. 57 miles. It has a remarkably level surface, with scarcely an inequality, except a ridge rising gradually between the courses of the Jumna and the Ganges, which, with the Hindon and the East Kali Nuddee, are the principal rivers of the district. The climate is subject to extremes unusual in that latitude. In the latter BOOMERANG, BOMERANG, and WOMERA, part of spring and the beginning of summer the are different modes of spelling the Australian heat is oppressive, but in winter the temperature name of a native weapon of war, used also in frequently falls below the freezing point, and ice the chase. It consists of a heavy wooden club, forms even under shelter of a tent. Domestic about 30 inches long, 3 wide, and 1 inch thick; quadrupeds attain scarcely half the size of those flat on one side, and convex on the other; in Bengal and Bahar. Cotton, however, grows bent, without moving the flat side out of its well, and constitutes the staple production of own plane, either into an arc or into an obtuse the soil, but the commercial advantages which angle. This club is thrown, flat side down, this is supposed to offer are almost wholly neg- spinning with great velocity, and it will either lected. The other products are indigo, sugar, return to its owner, or turn to the right or left, tobacco, wheat, barley, millet, and several kinds according to its first position. It skims upon of pulse. The pop. is 778,342, of whom 633,696 the air, like a bird with the wings expanded; are Hindoos, the remainder Mussulmans and the rotation causing the plane of rotation to others. Boolundshahur formed part of the resist change of direction, and thus avoiding territory acquired by Perron, a French ad- those sudden and capricious movements obventurer, who went to India as a common served in flat stones or plates of metal when sailor, entered the service of the Mahratta thrown edgewise through the air. Naval archichief Sindia, and by the exercise of abilities tects have attempted to apply the principle of of no ordinary stamp, rose gradually to the the bomerang to screw steamships, but so far highest offices in the gift of his patron, and the idea has not found favor with ship-builders. finally became the sovereign of a petty state, and the commander of a body of well disciplined soldiers. With his assistance Sindia was enabled to make war upon the peishwa, and drive him from his capital, Poonah. This circumstance gave the British a long-coveted opportunity to break up the power of the victorious adventurer, whose rapid rise and ambitious plans they could not view without alarm. They willingly granted the peishwa's request for assistance, and several battles were fought in 1803, in which the British were almost always victorious. The last victory, gained by Lord Lake near Delhi, Sept. 14, gave the death-blow to the French state, though the war was not concluded for some time afterward. Perron made terms with the English, and retired into private life at Lucknow with his family and effects. A treaty was concluded with Sindia, at Serjee Angengaum, Dec. 30, 1803, by which Boolundshahur and other possessions were ceded to the East India company. -BOOLUNDSHAHur, or Burrun, a town of the above district, situated on the Kali Nuddee, 40 miles S. E. of Delhi, was the scene of a revolt of native troops, May 20, 1857. A spy having been seized by the troops was given up to the authorities, and on proof of his guilt was hanged. But unfortunately the man was a Bramin, and

BOOMING, in sea language, is the application of the boom to the sails in order to catch more of the breeze, and quicken the speed of the ship.

BOONDEE, a small territory in Rajpootana, Hindostan, under the political superintendence of the governor general, between lat. 24° 58′ and 25° 55′ N., and long. 75° 23′ and 76° 30′ E.; bounded N. by Jeypoor, E. by Kotah, S.. by Sindia's territory, W. by Odeypoor. Length, 85 miles; breadth, 50 miles; area, 2,291 sq. m. Pop. estimated at 229,100, or 100 to the sq. m., which is the average density of population in British Rajpootana. A range of mountains traverses it from N. E. to S.W., on each side of which the surface is level. There are no large rivers within the territory, but the Chumbul, a navigable affluent of the Juina, forms part of its E. boundary. The climate is unhealthy, fevers, rheumatism, ophthalmia, and bronchial affections being very prevalent. The majority of the inhabitants are Meenas, a lawless predatory tribe, dwelling chiefly among the mountains, and supposed to be the early possessors of the district. The dominant tribe, however, to which the sovereign belongs, is that of the Haras, which has given birth to many famous men. The military force at the disposal of the monarch, including feudatories and the police,

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