has evidently been much intercourse with Java, as attested by so many names of places, and of things in common use; and remains of ancient Javanese temples have been found far in the interior. The intercourse with Celebes is very great, and the enterprising Bugis race of that island compete successfully with the Malays for the trade of the coasts. The Chinese are the chief miners of gold, and traders of the towns and villages where European dominion is established.-De Barros says that the Portuguese discovered Borneo in 1526; but the earliest mention of it is to be found in the "Itinerary" of Ludovico Barthema, who visited the archipelago between 1503 and 1507. No portion was taken possession of by Portuguese or Spanish commanders, as the island, at every approach, presenting its impassable alluvial coast belt, seemed to offer no commercial advantages like Sumatra, Java, and the Moluccas. The Dutch, under Van Noort, first appeared in Borneo in 1598, but did not begin to trade till 1664. Their sole object then was to secure the monopoly of pepper, to the exclusion of all other European traders, and they made a treaty to this effect with the sultan of Banjarmassin, where they established a factory. They were expelled after a few years, through the intrigues of the English. They returned in 1773. In 1785 they rendered important military services to the reigning prince, in a case of disputed succession, who, out of gratitude, ceded to them the sovereignty of his dominions. In the same manner, taking advantage of the weakness of petty princes, they have, by treaties, been enabled to claim sovereignty over all that portion of the island south of a line running from Cape Datoo, W., to Cape Salatan, E.; but the great body of it is inhabited by independent interior tribes, who have no knowledge of the contests between the Malay and Dutch sovereignties on the coast, or even of their existence. This extensive territory claimed by the Dutch, nearly twice as large as the state of New York, is probably a burden upon the Netherlands' Indian treasury; as the gross amount of its revenue, only $120,000 in 1853, would not cover the expense of its establishments at Banjarmassin, Coti, Pontianak, and Sambas. The English had trading factories for a short time in Borneo, during the 17th century; but have not had any territorial possessions, if we except the settlement, in 1775, of Balambangan, an island geographically belonging to Borneo, and ceded by the sultan of Sooloo, and the still more recent settlement of another island, Labooan, in 1846, ceded to the British government by the sultan of Brunai, and upon which an English company are now engaged in mining the coal with which it abounds. This latter cession was obtained through the influence of Sir James Brooke, better known in the East as Rajah Brooke. This enterprising gentleman, pursuing the policy of the Dutch in their relations with Bornean princes, having, with a small armed vessel of his own, rendered military aid to the sultan of

Brunai, obtained from him the cession of a territory called Sarawak, bounded S. by the Dutch province of Sambas, extending thence from Cape Datoo along the coast N. E. 80 miles, with an average breadth of 50 miles. The value of the exports, in 1854, from Sarawak, was $1,125,000, and of the imports over $800,000. The net revenue of the rajah from seigniorage on antimony mines, and other sources, was $120,000, or $20,000 more than the gross revenue of the Dutch, controlling more than 20 times the extent of territory on the same island. The British enjoy a large trade with Borneo, chiefly carried on through the free port of Singapore, which is much more valuable than that of the Dutch.

BORNHAUSER, THOMAS, a Swiss divine, poet, and political reformer, born May 26, 1799, at Weinfelden in Thurgau, died in March, 1856. He began political life in 1830 by exciting publications in favor of changing the constitution of Thurgau. In 1837 he carried through a measure for subjecting religious estates to the administration of the state. On one occasion the aristocratic party opposed his election to the great council, as the Thurgau law does not permit clergymen to become members of political bodies; but he was elected notwithstanding, and the exasperation against him became so violent, that one of his political opponents even threatened his life. In 1882 he published a collection of songs, and in 1836 an epic poem, Heinz von Stein. He was one of the editors of a political journal in St. Gall, called Der Wächter, and in 1833 he compiled a collection of the constitutions of the Swiss cantons.

BORNHOLM, an island in the Baltic, owned by Denmark, but geographically and geologically belonging to Sweden; about 23 miles long by 18 broad; area 230 sq. m.; pop. 28,000. The coast in most places is high and rocky; where cliffs are not seen, dangerous reefs and sand banks stretch out to sea. There are no good harbors for large vessels. The land is generally fertile, and produces the same grain crops, and the same kinds of trees, except the beech, as the rest of Denmark. The island produces coal, marble, and building stone, earthenware, fish, sheep, and cattle.

BORNOO, or BORNOU (called by the natives Kanowra), a country of central Africa, bounded on the N. by the Great Desert, on the S. by Mandara, on the E. by Lake Tchad and Begharmi, and on the W. by Houssa. The chief rivers are the Waube, generally but improperly called the Yeou, and the Shary. The former rises in the mountains of Houssa, flows first north, then eastward through Bornoo, and empties into Lake Tchad. The Shary takes its rise in the mountains of Mandara, and is the more considerable river of the two. Lake Tchad receives its waters also. This lake is one of the most remarkable natural features of the country. During the dry season, when the streams by which it is fed are reduced in size, its waters recede, and leave uncovered a tract of many miles in extent, to be

again overflowed when the rivers are swollen by the rains of the wet season. The fertility caused by this inundation produces only a rank growth of grass from 10 to 12 feet in height, and almost impenetrable thickets of trees and underwood. When the lake encroaches upon these regions, the numerous wild animals and serpents with which they are filled seek refuge in the cultivated and settled tracts of country, and spread terror among the inhabitants. The climate of Bornoo, especially from March to the end of June, is excessively hot. During the rainy season, from May to October, great numbers of the inhabitants are carried off by fever and ague. The soil is fertile, and though but imperfectly cultivated, produces large crops. A species of millet forms the staple food of the Bornooese; rice and grain of an inferior kind are also grown in small quantity. There are no fruits, and minerals are unknown. The population is variously estimated at from 5,000,000 to 9,000,000. The mass of the people, called Bornooese, or Kanowry, present a complete specimen of the negro form and features. They are peaceable and courteous, but resentful and addicted to pilfering. The pastoral districts are occupied by an Arab race called Shouas. They have fine open countenances, with aquiline noses, large eyes, and a complexion of light copper. They are described as being arrogant, deceitful, and dishonest. The Mohammedan religion is universally professed, and that with a violence and bigotry scarcely paralleled. The government of Bornoo is nominally vested in a sultan, but all the power really resides in an officer called the sheik. The sultan is surrounded by a body-guard of nobles and chiefs, clad in the most grotesque and unwieldy attire to which the custom of any country has given rise. The rank of an officer or noble is indi cated by the number of robes which are wrapped about his body. Notwithstanding the heat of the climate, as many as 10 or 12 are sometimes worn. It is considered indispensable that the sultan should present a corpulent appearance, and when high feeding cannot effect the desired result, stuffing is resorted to. The military force of this monarch amounts to about 30,000, mostly cavalry. The principal towns are Kuka, the royal residence, Engornoo, Deegoa, Old and New Birnie, and Affagay. Most of them are populous, well built, and enclosed by walls. The country was visited by Barth, Overweg, and Richardson in 1851-'54.

BORO-BODO, a remarkable ancient edifice in the island of Java, situated in the province of Kadoe, near the Probo river, about 25 miles N. W. of the native capital of Yugyakerta. Upon a quadrangular base, measuring 620 ft. on either side, there rise to the height of 116 ft. 7 stories of sculptured walls, each story, as you ascend, receding within the area of the one below, and leaving a broad terrace between each succession of walls. Upon the topmost terrace are 3 circles of small, round, bell-shaped

fanes, 72 in number, and from their centre springs a pointed dome, 50 ft. in diameter, which crowns this singular pyramidal structure. It is built upon, or rather hewn, like the temples of Arabia Petræa, out of a hill of trachytic stone in the centre of the plain of Probo, which lies between 4 grand volcanic peaks, Sindoro, Sumbing, Merbaboo, and Merapi, the highest of which is 11,000, and the lowest 9,000 feet above the level of the sea. The architecture of the different façades, in the proportions of the arched entrances, the flights of steps, the sculptured niches, and many cupolas at frequent intervals decorating the walls, and in the proportions and finish of the terraces and crowning dome, is grand and elegant; but a profusion of sculpture in low relief overloads and mars the chasteness of the outline. On a square of 14 feet upward of 1,000 figures have been counted, representing ceremonials, processions, chariot races, battles, and also sea views and naval engagements. There are 400 colossal images in the temple. The date of its construction is, according to the opinion of many oriental antiquaries, fixed as late as 1350, and the perfect state of the edifice does not show a more remote antiquity; but though not more than 500 years old, such is the imperfect character of Javanese records, so many have been the wars, revolutions, changes of dynasties, and migrations of people during that period, that the present inhabitants of the surrounding country, and indeed of the island, know nothing of its purpose, nor when nor by whom it was built. It has evidently been devoted to the worship of Buddha, the chief Asiatic deity.

BORODINO, a village on the left bank of the river Kolotcha, in Russia, about 2 miles above its junction with the Moskva. From this village the Russians name the great battle, in 1812, which decided the possession of Moscow; the French call it the battle of the Moskva, or of Mozhaisk. The battle-field is on the right bank of the Kolotcha. The Russian right wing was covered by that river from its junction with the Moskva to Borodino; the left wing was drawn back, en potence, behind a brook and ravine descending from the extreme left, at Utitsa, toward Borodino. Behind this ravine, 2 hills were crowned with incomplete redoubts, or lunettes, that nearest the centre called the Rayevski redoubt, those on the hill toward the left, 3 in number, called the Bagration lunettes. Between these 2 hills, another ravine, called from a village behind it that of Semionovskoye, ran down from the Russian left toward the former ravine, joining it about 1,000 yards before it reached the Kolotcha. The main road to Moscow runs by Borodino; the old road by Utitsa, to Mozhaisk, in rear of the Russian position. This line, about 9,000 yards in extent, was held by about 130,000 Russians, Borodino being occupied in front of the centre. Gen. Kutusoff was the Russian commander-in-chief; his troops were divided into 2 armies, the

larger, under Barclay de Tolly, holding the right and centre, the smaller, under Bagration, Occupying the left. The position was very badly chosen; an attack on the left, if successful, turned the right and centre completely; and if Mozhaisk had been reached by the French before the Russian right had retreated, which was possible enough, they would have been hopelessly lost. But Kutusoff, having once rejected the capital position of Tsarevoye Zaimishtche, selected by Barclay, had no other choice. The French, led by Napoleon in person, were about 125,000 strong: after driving the Russians, Sept. 5, 1812, from some slight intrenchments on their left, they were arranged for battle on the 7th, N. S. (Aug. 26, O. S.). Napoleon's plan was based upon the errors of Kutusoff; merely observing the Russian centre, he concentrated his forces against their left, which he intended to force, and then cut his way through toward Mozhaisk. Prince Eugene was accordingly ordered to make a false attack upon Borodino, after which Ney and Davoust were to assail Bagration and the lunettes named from him, while Poniatowski was to turn the extreme left of the Russians by Utitsa; the battle once well engaged, Prince Eugene was to pass the Kologa, and attack the Rayevski lunette. Thus the whole front actually attacked did not exceed in length 5,000 yards, which allowed 26 men to each yard of front, an unprecedented depth of order of battle, which accounts for the terrible losses of the Russians by artillery fire. About daybreak Poniatowski advanced against Utitsa, and took it, but his opponent, Tutchkoff, again expelled him; subsequently, Tutchkoff having had to send a division to the support of Bagration, the Poles retook the village. At 6 o'clock Davoust attacked the proper left of the Bagration intrenchments. Under a heavy fire from 12-pounders, to which he could oppose only 3 and 4-pounders, he advanced. Half an hour later, Ney attacked the proper right of these lunettes. They were taken and retaken, and a hot and undecided fight followed.-Bagration, however, well observed the great force brought against him, with their powerful reserves, and the French guard in the background. There could be no mistake about the real point of attack. He accordingly called together what troops he could, sending for a division of Rayevski's corps, for another of Tutchkoff's corps, for guards and grenadiers from the army reserve, and requesting Barclay to despatch the whole corps of Baggehufvud. These reënforcements, amounting to more than 30,000 men, were sent at once; from the army reserve alone, he received 17 battalions of guards and grenadiers, and 2 12-pound batteries. They could not, however, be made available on the spot before 10 o'clock, and before this hour Davoust and Ney made their second attack against the intrenchments, and took them, driving the Russians over the Semionovskoye ravine. Bagration sent his cuirassiers forward; an irregular struggle of great violence

followed, the Russians regaining ground as their reënforcements arrived, but again driven beyond the ravine as soon as Davoust engaged his reserve division. The losses on both sides were immense; almost all the general officers were killed or wounded, and Bagration himself was mortally hit. Kutusoff now at last took some part in the battle, sending Dokhituroff to take the command of the left, and his own chief of the staff, Toll, to superintend the arrangements for defence on the spot. A little after 10 the 17 battalions of guards and grenadiers, and the division of Vasiltchikoff, arrived at Semionovskoye; the corps of Baggehufvud was divided, one division being sent to Rayevski, another to Tutchkoff, and the cavalry to the right. The French, in the mean time, continued their attacks; the Westphalian division advanced in the wood toward the head of the ravine, while Gen. Friant passed this ravine, without, however, being able to establish himself there. The Russians now were reënforced (past 10) by the cuirassiers of Borosdin from the army reserve, and a portion of Korff's cavalry; but they were too much shattered to proceed to an attack, and about the same time the French were preparing a vast cavalry charge. On the Russian centre Eugene Beauharnais had taken Borodino at 6 in the morning, and passed over the Kologa, driving back the enemy; but he soon returned, and again crossed the river higher up in order to proceed, with the Italian guards, the division of Broussier (Italians), Gerard, Morand, and Grouchy's cavalry, to the attack on Rayevski, and the redoubt bearing his name. Borodino remained occupied. The passage of Beauharnais's troops caused delay; his attack could not begin much before 10 o'clock. The Rayevski redoubt was occupied by the division Paskiewitch, supported on its left by Vasiltchikoff, and having Dokhturoff's corps for a reserve. By 11 o'clock, the redoubt was taken by the French, and the Paskiewitch division completely scattered, and driven from the field of battle. But Vasiltchikoff and Dokhturoff retook the redoubt; the division of Prince Eugene of Würtemberg arrived in time, and now Barclay ordered the corps of Ostermann to take position to the rear as a fresh reserve. With this corps the last intact body of Russian infantry was brought within range; there remained now, as a reserve, only 6 battalions of the guard. Eugene Beauharnais, about 12 o'clock, was just going to attack the Rayevski redoubt a second time, when Russian cavalry appeared on the left bank of the Kologa. The attack was suspended, and troops were sent to meet them. But the Russians could neither take Borodino, nor pass the marshy bottom of the Voina ravine, and had to retreat by Zodock, without any other result than having to some extent crossed Napoleon's intentions.-In the mean time, Ney and Davoust, posted on the Bagration hill, had maintained a hot fire across the Semionovskoye ravine on the Russian masses. All at once

the Frenen cavalry began to move. To the right of Semionovskoye, Nansouty charged the Russian infantry with complete success, until Sievas's cavalry took him in flank and drove him back. To the left, Latour-Maubourg's 3,000 horse advanced in 2 columns; the first, headed by 2 regiments of Saxon cuirassiers, rode twice over 3 Russian grenadier battalions just forming square, but they were also taken in flank by Russian cavalry; a Polish cuirassier regiment completed the destruction of the Russian grenadiers, but they too were driven back to the ravine, where the second column, 2 regiments of Westphalian cuirassiers, and 1 of Polish lancers, repelled the Russians. The ground thus being secured, the infantry of Ney and Davoust passed the ravine. Friant occupied Semionovskoye, and the remainder of the Russians who had fought here, grenadiers, guards, and line, were finally driven back and their defeat completed by the French cavalry. They fled in small disorderly bands toward Mozhaisk, and could only be collected late at night; the 3 regiments of guards alone preserved a little order. Thus the French right, after defeating the Russian left, occupied a position directly in rear of the Russian centre as early as 12 o'clock, and then it was that Davoust and Ney implored Napoleon to act up to his own system of tactics, and complete the victory, by launching the guards by Semionovskoye on the Russian rear. Napoleon, however, refused, and Ney and Davoust, themselves dreadfully shattered, did not venture to advance without reënforcements.—On the Russian side, after Eugene Beauharnais had desisted from the attack on the Rayevski redoubt, Eugene of Würtemberg was sent to Semionovskoye, and Ostermann, too, had to change front in that direction so as to cover the rear of the Rayevski hill toward Semionovskoye. When Sorbier, the French chief of artillery, saw these fresh troops, he sent for 36 12-pounders from the artillery of the guard, and formed a battery of 85 guns in front of Semionovskoye. While these guns battered the Russian masses, Murat drew forward the hitherto intact cavalry of Montbrun and the Polish lancers. They surprised Ostermann's troops in the act of deploying, and brought them into great danger, until the cavalry of Kreutz repelled the French horse. The Russian infantry continued to suffer from the artillery fire; but neither party ventured to advance. It was now about 2 o'clock, and Eugene Beauharnais, reassured as to the hostile cavalry on his left, again at tacked the Rayevski redoubt. While the infantry attacked it in front, cavalry was sent from Semionovskoye to its rear. After a hard struggle, it remained in the hands of the French; and a little before 3 o'clock the Russians retreated. A general cannonade from both sides followed, but the active fighting was over. Napoleon still refused to launch his guard, and the Russians were allowed to retreat as they liked. The Russians had all their

troops engaged, excepting the 2 first regiments of the guards, and even these lost by artillery fire 17 officers and 600 men. Their total loss was 52,000 men, beside slightly wounded and scattered men who soon found their way back; but on the day after the battle their army counted only 52,000 men. The French had all their troops engaged, with the exception of the guards (14,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry and artillery); they thus beat a decidedly superior number. They were, beside, inferior in artillery, having mostly 3 and 4-pounders, while of the Russian guns were 12-pounders, and the rest 6-pounders. The French loss was 30,000 men; they took 40 guns, and only about 1,000 prisoners. If Napoleon had launched his guard, the destruction of the Russian army, according to Gen. Toll, would have been certain. He did not, however, risk this last reserve, the nucleus and mainstay of his army, and thus, perhaps, missed the chance of having peace concluded in Moscow.-The above account, in such of its details as are at variance with those commonly received, is mainly based upon the "Memoirs of Gen. Toll," whom we have mentioned as Kutusoff's chief of the staff. This book contains the best Russian account of the battle, and is indispensable for its correct appreciation.

BORON, or BORIUM, a metalloid substance discovered by Sir H. Davy, in 1807, by exposing boracic acid to the action of a powerful galvanic battery. Gay-Lussac and Thénard the succeeding year obtained it in larger quantities by heating boracic acid with potassium. It occurs in nature only in combination with oxygen in the form of boracic acid, either free or combined. It is obtained in the form of a powder, which is of dark olive-brown color, infusible and not volatilized at a white heat. Heated to 600° in the open air it takes fire, and, absorbing oxygen, is converted into boracic acid. It possesses neither taste nor smell, and is a non-conductor of electricity. Its specific gravity is about 2. Mixed with nitrate of potash and heated, it detonates with violence. Its chemical equivalent is 11, and its symbol B. It is not applied to any useful purpose. By means of the new metal aluminum, boron has been recently obtained by Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville in a crystallized state, and in a form they call graphitoid, from its resemblance to graphite. In the form previously known it is designated as amorphous. The results of their investigations are very interesting from the entirely new properties they discover in this substance. The crystallized boron they find to be the most unalterable of all simple bodies. No acids, pure or mixed, have any effect upon it; nor is it affected by boiling concentrated caustic soda, or nitrate of potash. It is slowly dissolved by monohydrated soda and carbonate of soda at a red heat. It is infusible before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, and is not oxidized when strongly heated. By chlorine it is acted upon with energy, becoming red hot in an atmosphere of it,

and converted into chloride of boron. Its crystalline form is not ascertained. It is brilliant and highly refractive like the diamond, and but little inferior to it in hardness. Like this, it is expected to be obtained in colorless crystals. These are now transparent, of garnet-red and heavy yellow colors, due probably to foreign coloring matters. It easily scratches corundum. The graphitoid variety is obtained in spangles of reddish color, quite opaque and sometimes of hexagonal form. It is deposited from a solution of boride of aluminum in hydrochloric acid. The preparation of the crystallized boron is thus described in a late number of the Comptes rendus: "Eighty grammes of aluminum in large fragments are fused with 100 grammes of fragments of fused boracic acid. The charcoal crucible is luted into a good black-lead crucible, and the whole put into a blast-furnace capable of easily fusing pure nickel. The temperature is kept at its maximumn for about 5 hours, care being taken to clear the bars of all ashes. When cold, the crucible is broken, and two distinct strata are found in it-one vitreous, composed of boracic acid and alumina, and the other metallic and cavernous, of an iron-gray color, beset with little crystals of boron; it is aluminum impregnated throughout with crystallized boron. All the metallic portion is treated with a moderately concentrated boiling solution of soda, which dissolves the aluminum; then with boiling muriatic acid, which removes the iron; and lastly, with a mixture of hydrofluoric and nitric acids to extract the traces of silicium which the soda may have left mixed with the boron. The boron is not pure, however; it contains lamina of aluminum, which may be extracted mechanically, but cannot be separated from the boron by any chemical process."

BOROUGII. The origin of this term is uncertain. By some etymologists it is derived from burgh (Sax.), burgus (Lat.), a walled town, and thence applied to any association of families in a neighborhood, for the purpose of mutual protection. By others, it is deduced from borgh or borhe (Sax.), pledge, referring to the civil division into tithings or decennaries, hundreds, &c., in which the inhabitants composing the tithing or hundred were pledges for the good conduct of each other. It is probable that in an early period when great disorder prevailed, protection was the principal object of the vicinage of houses which was denominated a borough. The term villa, from which is derived the modern village, originally signified a private country residence, but was afterward applied to a number of buildings placed near each other for the common safety of the inhabitants. It appears from "Domesday Book" that there were 82 boroughs in England, including cities, at the time of the Norman conquest. Though differing as to the extent of their franchises and mode of government, they were alike in two respects: 1, in having a fair or market; 2, they had a borough court independent of the

hundred. A 3d particular afterward became the distinctive franchise of boroughs, viz., the right of sending burgesses to parliament. The original object of mutual defence was merged in another, viz., privileges of trade; and not long after the conquest the guild, which was an association of persons in a particular trade, became so intermingled with the original constitution of boroughs that it is difficult to distinguish the respective franchises belonging to each, and the guild merchant, which was a kind of incorporation or licensed association of all the trades, became substantially the borough, or at least became possessed of its franchises, government, and name. Membership of the guild thus became the principal mode of obtaining the freedom of the borough. The number of burgesses was by no means co-extensive with that of the inhabitants; in fact, the boroughs were generally oligarchies, especially those which were created by charters after the conquest. The government was in many instances engrossed by a self-constituted body as the guild merchant, and in some cases even by a particular guild. Borough franchises were derived from charter or prescription (which was founded upon a supposed charter), and consisted at first of particular privileges, as that of a fair or market, of having a court, exemption from toll, and the like. Charters of incorporation were first granted in the reign of Henry VI., although the ancient boroughs had in fact used the privileges peculiar to corporations, viz., of governing themselves, and of holding property in common. But from the period above mentioned, the history of boroughs belongs to the subject of municipal corporations, with the exception of parliamentary franchise. Before the act of 1832, known as the act for parliamentary reform, there were 171 boroughs in England, represented by 339 burgesses; from Scotland there were 15 members for boroughs, and from Ireland 36. By that act 56 English boroughs were wholly disfranchised, 30 were deprived of 1 member each, and the right was given to 22 boroughs, which were before unrepresented, of returning 2 members each, and to 19 boroughs of returning 1 member each. The right of voting was also extended from a small privileged class to the citizens at large having certain qualifications. The whole number of representatives from boroughs in the English parliament, is now 337 from England and Wales, 23 from Scotland, and 39 from Ireland, being nearly the same numerically as before, but having very different constituencies. In the United States the term borough is applied to an incorporated village or town, but not to a city. In England it includes cities as well as villages, though in some old statutes the 3 terms, city, borough, and village, are used distinctively.

BOROUGHBRIDGE, an English markettown, in the parish of Aldborough, and the west riding of Yorkshire, 206 miles N. N. W. of London; pop. 1,095. In old times it was a seat