semicircle, which Michel Angelo purposed adopting as the best place for the mausoleum. Instead of this, Bramante undertook to erect a new edifice, and, in 1513, designed and commenced the church of St. Peter's, which was completed by Michel Angelo.

BRAMBANAN, a small native town of Java, in the sultanate of Yugyakerta, and about 10 miles distant from the capital of this state. The name signifies "abode of Brahma;" and in its immediate vicinity are the remains of several magnificent temples, which evidently were devoted to the worship of the chief deity of the Hindoo triad. There are eight structures in such a state of preservation that every portion of their architecture and decoration can be accurately made out. Sir Stamford Raffles, in his history of Java, gives a full account of these edifices, and fine illustrations of them, in a restored condition, are to be found in the plates accompanying the London edition of 1830 of this work.

BRAMBLE, the wild bush that bears raspberries and blackberries, belonging to the natural order rosacea, and constituting the genus rubus. The essential characters of the genus are: calyx 5-parted, without bractlets; petals 5, deciduous; achenia usually many, collected on a spongy or succulent receptacle, becoming small drupes. Nearly 200 species of this genus have been described. They are perennial herbs, or somewhat shrubby plants, with white (rarely reddish) flowers, and edible fruit; and they are universally diffused over the mountainous and temperate regions of the old and new world. Among the European species are the R. fruticosus, or common blackberry, having digitate leaves, with from 3 to 5 leaflets, white panicled flowers, and black or purple fruit, common throughout Europe in hedges and thickets; the R. casius, or dewberry, a rougher and more prickly species than the preceding, with trailing stem, found in Europe and in N. E. Asia; the R. arcticus, a dwarf species, found in mountainous and northern regions, each stem producing a single highly esteemed fruit; and the R. idaus, or common raspberry, having minute leaves, with from 3 to 7 leaflets, villose, with upright and bristly stems, drooping flowers, and a light-red finely flavored fruit, common from the Himalayas to Ireland. Among the American species are the R. strigosus, or wild raspberry, closely resembling the last, but having longer petals, common on thickets and hills, especially throughout the northern states; the R. occidentalis, black raspberry, or thimbleberry, glaucous, with recurved stems, armed with hooked prickles, with umbellate flowers and a purple-black fruit, found in thickets and fields from Canada to the West Indies; the R. odoratus, a sweet-scented raspberry, with fragrant foliage, large purple flowers, and a shrubby stem, found on rocky banks northward from the Alleghanies; the R. villosus, or high blackberry, shrubby, armed with stout prickles,

having 3 or 5 ovate, unequally serrate leaflets, numerous racemed flowers, and a blackish fruit, common in the borders of thickets, and varying much in size and aspect; the R. Canadensis, low blackberry, or dewberry, shrubby, trailing, prickly, common on rocky or gravelly hills, and having a large and sweet fruit; and the R. trivialis, or low bush-blackberry, with evergreen, nearly glabrous, ovate-oblong or lanceolate leaves, and large petals, growing chiefly in sandy soil southward.

BRAMHALL, JOHN, archbishop of Armagh, Ireland, born 1593, died 1663. He was instrumental in restoring the temporalities, and also in inducing the church of Ireland to embrace the 39 articles. In 1640-'41 he was impeached, together with several of Lord Stafford's coadjutors, by the Irish house of commons. After the battle of Long Marston Moor, he retired to Hamburg. In the field of literature, Bramhall is known by the controversy which he maintained with Hobbes, "concerning liberty, necessity, and chance."

BRAN, the husks which separate from grain when ground and bolted. Its proportion in good wheat, according to Johnston, is from 14 to 16 per cent. of the whole weight. As bran contains a large amount of albuminous matter, its rejection from the flour is regarded by chemists as a loss of nutriment. Liebig, Dr. Thomson, Millon, and other distinguished chemists, all regard its separation as rather injurious than otherwise. Its composition, as determined from 6 samples analyzed by Johnston, is:

Payen found that the gluten in the grain increased in quantity from its centre toward the outer covering, thus showing that the removal of the husk must abstract a part of the most nutritious portion of the grain. From the tendency of bran to ferment, it has the effect of aiding digestion, which may perhaps be increased by the mechanical operation of the coarse particles which it contains. Bread made of unbolted flour is often used as a laxative article of diet in dyspepsia. In France and Germany it is the common food of the peasantry, and among no people are complaints of indigestion more rare. In the use of it, it is apparent also that there is great economy. It has been found by experiment that dogs can live on bran-bread, though they cannot on flour-bread. This is owing to the nitrogenous qualities of the bran, which are absent from the flour.-Wheat bran is employed in the manufacture of starch, and by calico printers for removing the non-mordanted colors from maddered goods. This is done by boiling them in bran water. Dyers also make use of it in making the "sour-water" with which they prepare their dyes.

BRANCALEONE, DANDOLO, a noble of Bologna, who, although a foreigner, was made chief magistrate by the people of Rome in 1253. The patricians and brigands, whose licentiousness and depredations had proved fatal to the public good, were promptly consigned by him to the gallows. He forced Innocent IV. to respect the rights of the people, and instituted a form of government which after 2 years appalled the Romans themselves by its severity, and caused them to depose him; but only to recall him in 1257, when he resumed his iron rule until his death in the following year.

BRANCHI, a southern county of Michigan, bordering on Indiana, and having an area of 528 square miles. The St. Joseph's and Prairie are the principal rivers. The soil is a rich, sandy loam; the surface undulating, and occupied by dense forests and oak openings. Iron is found in several places. The products of the county in 1850 were 161,284 bushels of wheat, 266,818 of corn, 123,293 of oats, 113,892 of potatoes, 11,003 tons of hay, and 57,007 pounds of wool. The public schools numbered 348 pupils. Capital, Coldstream. Pop. 12,472. The county was formed in 1833, and named in honor of John Branch, secretary of the navy under President Jackson.

BRANCH, JOHN, an American statesman, born at Halifax, N. C., in 1782. He was educated at the university of North Carolina, became a lawyer, and one of the judges of the superior court, and was in 1817 elected a senator in the state legislature, and in 1823 a senator in the national congress. He was secretary of the navy in the first cabinet of President Jackson, returned home on the dissolution of that cabinet, and was elected a representative in Congress in 1831. He was in 1834 again a member of the state senate, in 1835 a member of the state convention for the revision of the constitution, in 1838 the democratic candidate for governor, and in 1843 was appointed governor of the territory of Florida.

BRANCHLE (Gr. Bpayxia, gills of a fish), organs by which the fluids circulating in the bodies of animals that live in the water are minutely subdivided, and in this state presented in respiration to the action of the air contained in the water.

BRANCHIIOPODA (Gr. ẞpayxia, gills, and Tous, a foot), an order of the section entomostraca of the crustacea, the animals of which are small, mostly inhabit stagnant fresh water, and are provided with feet which are used only for swimming, except that in some instances they contain the organs of respiration. The bodies are protected by a corneous or membranous covering, with a shield in one piece, or divided like a bivalve shell. One species, the branchipus stagnalis, is common in New England in stagnant pools. It is about an inch long, and is furnished with numerous fringed legs, which are in constant motion.

BRANDE, WILLIAM THOMAS, an English

chemist, born in 1780. He succeeded Sir Humphry Davy in his professorship at the royal institution, after having long been his assistant. His chief works are: "A Manual of Chemistry," "Outlines of Geology," and an "Encyclopædia of Literature, Science, and Art." BRANDENBURG, the cradle of the Prussian kings, and the most important Prussian province, known in the times of Cæsar as the home of the Suevi, was invaded by many different races, until the Saxon influence became predominant in 928 under Henry the Fowler, who conquered the principal town, Brannibor. The first bishopric was established at Havelberg in 946. The Wends, however, could not be entirely subdued, and the political organization satisfactorily completed, until the middle of the 12th century, when the emperor Lothar gave the northern part of the province to Albert the Bear, who first assumed the title of margrave of Brandenburg, and conquered the other parts of the province. His descendants founded Berlin, the capital of the province and afterward of Prussia. Albert's dynasty became extinct in 1323 in the person of Margrave Henry, and the province was then given to Louis of Bavaria. After passing through various other political changes, it was presented in 1415 by Emperor Sigismund, to Frederic VI. of Hohenzollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, who became the progenitor of the present Prussian dynasty. The most eminent of the princes who succeeded him was Joachim II., who was one of the first German princes to join the reformation, and who signed his name to the protest of Spire, from which the Protestants took their name. Under the reign of subsequent sovereigns, especially of Frederic William, the great elector, Brandenburg reached a high degree of prosperity. The country is now intersected with canals and railroads. The principal rivers are the Elbe, Oder, Haver, and Spree. There are 700 lakes, and many swamps and morasses, some of which, however, have been drained. The soil is sandy and not favorable for cattle, though the province has 2,500,000 sheep; and agriculture is pursued with success. The raising of bees is an important branch of industry, and tobacco is produced in large quantities. Manufactures abound. Area, about 15,000 square miles. Pop. in 1856, 2,254,305, all Protestants, excepting 37,962 Roman Catholics, 24,196 Jews, 9 Turks, 95 members of the Greek church, and 19 Mennonites.-There is also a city of the same name, founded in the 7th century; it is the capital of the circle of West Havelland, in the government of Potsdam, and province of Brandenburg, with a castle, gymnasium, and 9 schools, public library, theatre, hospitals, &c., manufactures of woollens, linens, hosiery, paper, hats, leather, &c., and a considerable trade. Pop. in 1856, 19,383.

BRANDENBURG, FRIEDRICH WILHELM, count, a Prussian general and statesman, the son of King Frederic William II. by his morganatic marriage with the countess von Doen

hoff, born in Berlin, Jan. 24, 1792, died Nov. 6, 1850. In his military career he gave proofs of courage and capacity on various occasions, especially in the final campaigns against Napoleon; but he became chiefly conspicuous by his position as premier of the Prussian cabinet in 1848, and by his subsequent negotiations with the emperors of Russia and Austria, chiefly on the question of the preponderance of Austria in German affairs, to which he was much opposed.

BRANDES, HEINRICH WILHELM, a German savant, born in the village of Groden, July 27, 1777, died in Leipsic, May 17, 1834. He studied hydraulics and mathematics, and after perfecting his knowledge at the university of Göttingen, participated in Benzenberg's astronomical labors. In 1811 he became professor of mathematics at Breslau, and in 1826 received a call to the university of Leipsic, of which he was rector at the time of his death.

BRANDING, in criminal law, was the marking of convicted felons with a hot iron on the hand or face. A layman claiming benefit of clergy, if entitled to it, was discharged upon being burnt in the hand. This was not as a punishment so much as to show by an indelible mark that he had been allowed the benefit of clergy once, the rule being that it was not allowable to a layman more than once. See BENEFIT OF CLERGY.

BRANDIS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST, a German professor of philosophy at Bonn, born at Hildesheim, Feb. 13, 1790. He studied at Kiel and Göttingen, and took his degree at Copenhagen in 1812; lectured there on philosophy; went to Berlin; accompanied Niebuhr to Rome in 1816, but soon returned, to engage in the publication of the works of Aristotle. He visited Greece in 1837, at the invitation of King Otho, and remained there several years as his secretary. His Mittheilungen über Griechenland, and his Handbuch der Geschichte der Griechisch-Römischen Philosophie, are especially valuable.

BRANDIS, JOACHIM DIETRICH, a German physician, born at Hildesheim, March 18, 1762, died in Copenhagen, April 28, 1846. He was a skilful practitioner, and published many valuable original works.

BRANDT, NICOLAUS, a Hamburg chemist of the end of the 17th century, who, in order to restore his broken fortunes, devoted himself to alchemical experiments, with a view of converting silver into gold, and of finding the philosopher's stone. One day in 1669, while engaged in distilling a mixture of sand, lime, and urine, he discovered a shining substance, which turned out to be phosphorus. He sold his discovery to Kraft of Dresden, who communicated it to Leibnitz and Boyle.

BRANDY, the liquor distilled from the juice of the grape and of other fruits, as apples, pears, peaches, cherries, blackberries, &c. The peculiar taste and aroma of wine brandy are derived from a volatile oil of the husk of the

grape. Rectification by repeated distillation clears the liquor of this fragrant substance, as also of its water, and converts it into alcohol. The average proportion of the latter in brandy varies from 48 to 54 per cent. The essential oil, when distilled from the husk alone, is so powerful, that a few drops of it are sufficient to taint a large cask of spirit. Beside these ingredients, brandy contains coloring matter, tannin, cenanthic ether, and a little acetic ether. Cider, peach, perry, cherry, and other brandies, only differ from each other and from wine brandy by their peculiar volatile oils, which they contain in very small quantity. These give to them the peculiar properties by which they are readily distinguished by one familiar with them. Brandies are commonly known as pale or dark. When first distilled, the liquor is without color, and the pale amber tint it acquires is derived from the wood of the cask in which it is kept. This becomes deeper by age, and to imitate it, burnt sugar is added to the newly distilled brandy. The best brandies come from France, the most esteemed of which are those of Cognac and Armagnac. As the value of these is greatly increased in conscquence of partial failures of the vintage, and the largely increased demand, it has become an object to adulterate them, so that pure French brandy is now hardly to be obtained. Common whiskey is exported from the United States to France in large quantities, and is brought back converted into a factitious brandy. This is also produced from a variety of other ardent spirits. Rum, beet-root spirit, and that of potatoes, are largely used in France for its manufacture, and similar processes are also carried on in this country. From the immense quantities of pure spirits imported into France, and the small quantity exported, except in the shape of brandy and wine, it follows that a great proportion of these are nothing more than grain or beet-distilled liquor, colored, flavored, and named to suit the market to which it is, sent. The products of the vine have greatly decreased in all the districts of France, while the exports of the so-called vinous liquors have greatly increased. The distillation of beet spirits amounted in the year 1853 in France to but $100,000, while in 1856 it exceeded $10,000,000. The inferior spirits are carefully rectified by repeated distillations over freshly burnt charcoal and quicklime, to deprive them of their peculiar flavors, which would, if left behind, betray the imposition; and the essential oils are then added, which have the odor of the ether it is desired to imitate. Dr. Ure does not scruple to give a recipe for manufacturing factitious brandy, which, he says, is free from the deleterious drugs too often used to disguise and increase the intoxicating power of British brandies, and which may be reckoned as wholesome as alcohol in any shape can ever be. To pure alcohol diluted to the proof pitch, from half a pound to a pound of argol (crude winestone) is to be added, dissolved

in water; with this a little acetic ether, also some French wine vinegar, bruised French plums, and flavor stuff from Cognac. (This is murk, or the refuse skins and pips of the grape left after distillation of the wine. It contains the less volatile ingredients of the grape, as the salts and most of the water-the alcohol having distilled over. It is largely imported into England to redistil with molasses for manufacturing the article known as "British brandy.") The mixture is then distilled over a gentle fire in an alembic furnished with an agitator. Nicely burnt sugar (caramel) is added to the spirit which comes over, to give the dark red tint of age, and a few drops of tincture of catechu or oak bark give the astringent taste and property of the tannin contained in the real brandy. As our knowledge of organic chemistry becomes more precise, it is probable that we shall be enabled to imitate with almost perfect success many choice productions of nature in this department, as we have already done in reproducing many of the brilliant gems of the inorganic kingdom. But the imitations of brandy so far produced are not so perfect but that they may be easily detected. In the report of an examination by Dr. Hassall, of the "Lancet," of 18 samples of brandy purchased in London, it appears that the majority consisted of the socalled British brandy; the alcohol ranged from 30 to 50 per cent.; nearly all were colored with burnt sugar, but in none of the samples was any cayenne present, though the rum and gin purchased at the same places were found to contain it.-As a medicine, brandy is considered the most useful form in which alcohol is administered. In advanced stages of fever, it acts as a cordial and stomachic, when other remedies afford no relief.

BRANDYWINE CREEK rises in the N. W. part of Chester co., Penn., and flowing through the interior in a S. E. direction, empties into the Christiana creek at the city of Wilmington, Del. It furnishes power throughout its course for many valuable mill seats. On its banks the Americans, 13,000 strong, under Washington, were defeated by the British and Germans, 18,000 strong, under Howe, Sept. 11, 1777.

BRANECKI, or BRANICKI, FRANCISZEK XAWIER, the last great constable of the Polish republic, died in 1819, was born of an obscure family, most probably of Tartar origin, and served in the military household of Jan Klemens Branicki. In the events of Poland, he appears for the first time in 1762 as an attendant of Poniatowski, at his visit to St. Petersburg, and as the abettor of his amours with Catharine II. Poniatowski owed his escape to Branecki on one occasion, when one of his interviews with Catharine was discovered by Paul. When his master became king, Branecki was rapidly advanced, through the influence of Catharine, and after the death of the former great constable, he changed a letter in his

BRANT

name, taking that of Branicki, on succeeding to that dignity. He was always a prominent adherent of Russia, and sustained that power in all its acts of war, violence, and persecution of the patriots under the leadership of Pulawski. In 1773 he was foremost in facilitating and sanctioning the 1st dismemberment of Poland. Afterward, he opposed the efforts of the nation for a reinvigorating reform, formed the celebrated confederacy of Targovitza in 1793, which resulted in the 2d dismemberment, and was the death-blow to national existence. In 1794 he was proclaimed a traitor to his country. After the 3d and final division of Poland in 1795, he retired with his wife, a niece of the celebrated Potemkin, to his immense estates, counting 120,000 serfs, called Biala-Cerkeff, situated in the Ukraine. It was a gift of Catharine, and was taken from the Polish crown domains. There he died, overwhelmed with gifts from the Russian emperors, and with the execration of the Poles. His descendants are counted among the richest private individuals in Russia and Poland. In 1841 they were created counts by the emperor Nicholas.

BRANICKI, JAN KLEMENS, a Polish statesman, born in 1688, died in 1771. In his youth, he served in the French army. In 1717 he returned to Poland. He rose to the highest dignities, was an opponent of King Augustus II., and the zealous champion of the nobility. After the death of Augustus III., he officiated as great constable and first senator of the kingdom, and stood at the head of the republican party, but defended the privileges of the nobility. He was offered the crown by a great majority of the nobles who constituted the nation. The party of the Czartoryskis, backed by Russia, was, however, triumphant. Poniatowski was elected, and Branicki was outlawed, and escaped to Hungary. As his wife was a sister of the new king, he soon returned, and recovered his dignities. He was called by the nation the last patriot, and at his funeral was performed for the last time the medieval ceremony of the ancient chivalry, that of breaking the coat of arms, and entombing it with the body of the last member of a noble line.

BRANK, a bridle for the tongue, formerly used in Scotland, and sometimes in England, for correcting scolding women. It resembled closely the common horse bridle; the head of the offender was inserted within it, and a sharp iron was brought as a bit well into the mouth, and made to keep its place by an arrangement of straps and buckles. The tongue was thus obliged to retreat to the rear and keep quiet. In this harness the tamed shrew was not unfrequently led in triumph through the streets.

BRANT, a south-west county of Canada West, comprising an area of 416 square miles, and drained by Grand river. The surface is somewhat diversified, but most of it is level. The soil is exceedingly fertile. The productions of the county in 1852 were 625,741 bushels of wheat,

13,459 of rye, 126,114 of Indian corn, 23,104 of buckwheat, 28,885 of barley, 281,716 of oats, 106,244 of potatoes, and 79,981 pounds of wool. Capital, Brantford. Pop. in 1857 estimated at 29,557.

BRANT, JOSEPH (THAYENDANEGEA), a Mohawk chief, born in Ohio about 1742, died Nov. 24, 1807. He was frequently spoken of as a Shawnee by birth, and only a Mohawk by adoption, and it has also been said that he was a son of Sir William Johnson. Having taken a part in the campaign of Lake George in 1755, and in various subsequent conflicts, he officiated, after Sir William Johnson's death, as secretary of Col. Guy Johnson, superintendent-general of the Indians, and when the American revolution began he was instrumental in exciting the Indians against the colonies. His presence at the massacre of Wyoming is doubtful, though he took part in that of Cherry Valley, and in other sanguinary engagements. He was received with great distinction on his tour to England in 1786, and was attached to the military service of Sir Guy Carleton, in Canada. He opposed the confederation of the Indians which led to the expedition of General Wayne, and did all he could to prevent peace between the Indians and the United States. He was, however, zealously devoted to the welfare of his own people, and conspicuous for his efforts to prevent the introduction of ardent spirits among them; was a brave warrior, and noted for his ability, as testified by his correspondence. During his stay in England, he collected funds for a church, which was the first one built in Upper Canada. He there also published the "Book of Common Prayer" and the Gospel of Mark, in Mohawk and English. He spent the latter part of his life at Burlington bay, near the head of Lake Ontario, where he built a house for himself upon a tract of land conferred on him by the British government. One of his sons was somewhat distinguished in 1811 and 1812 as the leader of a body of Canadians and Indians employed by Great Britain against the United States. The "Life of Brant" has been written by Col. W. L. Stone, of New York.

BRANTFORD, a town on Grand river, the capital of Brant co., Canada West. A canal, 24 miles long, connects it with the head of navigation on the river, and thus opens an uninterrupted water communication with Lake Erie. The Buffalo and Lake Huron railway was completed to this point in Jan. 1854, and the company have extensive buildings in the town, comprising a repair shop, machine shop, foundery, and engine house. There are churches belonging to various denominations, 4 newspaper offices, about 60 stores, agencies of the bank of Montreal, bank of British North America, and several insurance companies. The principal manufactures are brass and iron castings, tin and japanned ware, sashes, blinds, agricultural implements, and stoneware. Pop. in 1858 about 8,000.

BRANTÔME, PIERRE DE BOURDEILLES, a

French biographer and chronicler, born about 1540, died July 15, 1614. He was chamberlain of Charles IX. and Henry III.; took an active part in the campaigns against the Huguenots and Turks; and has written historical works which embrace many interesting memoirs, anecdotes, and sketches of the celebrities of his time.

BRANXHOLM, or BRANKSOME, a place in the county of Roxburgh, on the Teviot, Scotland. It is the ancient seat of the dukes of Buccleugh, but owes its chief renown to the fact of its being the scene of Sir Walter Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel." The ancient castle has been replaced by a modern edifice, connected with which, however, is a square tower, the sole remaining relic of the old stronghold.

BRANXTON, a parish of England, and the scene of the battle of Flodden, fought Sept. 19, 1513. A monumental pillar marks the spot where the conflict took place.

BRASCASSAT, JACQUES RAYMOND, a French painter, born in Bordeaux, Aug. 30, 1805. In 1825 he took the first prize of the academy of fine arts, for historical landscape, after which he went to Rome to complete his studies. He has produced many fine landscapes with animals, and became a member of the academy of fine arts in 1848.

BRASHER, ABRAHAM, a colonel in the army of the United States, born in New York, Dec. 2, 1734, died in exile during the revolution, in 1782. He was one of the most active associates of the "liberty boys" of his native city. He wrote many of the popular ballads of the revolutionary period, and was a constant contributor to the newspapers of his day. Among his poetical productions were "Another New Year's Address," and the "General's trips to Morristown," both of which were favorites in the American camp.

BRASIDAS, son of Tellis, was the greatest character produced by Sparta in the 1st period of the Peloponnesian war. After covering himself with glory at Pylos and Megara, he was sent with an army into Thrace to succor Perdiccas, and to operate against the Athenian colonies. Brasidas was slain at Amphipolis, 422 B. C., in a battle in which he totally defeated an Athenian army under Cleon.

BRASS. Of all the alloys of one metal with another, none are more useful than those of copper with zinc, forming the different varieties of brass. This alloy appears to have been in use at a very early period, if the Latin word as is correctly translated brass instead of copper, for Lucretius observes, Et prior erat æris quam ferri cognitus usus-"the use of brass was known before that of iron." Pliny speaks of its use soon after Rome was founded, and states that Numa, the successor of Romulus, formed the workers of it into a kind of community. It is also certain that before zinc was ever obtained as a distinct metal, its alloy with copper was in use, the zinc ores being reduced in process of