inquire into the state of the education of the poor in the metropolis. The appointment of this committee is an event in the history of popular education in England, although at first it remained without any immediate result. The recommendation of the committee to apply a portion of the funds of educational institutions for higher instruction to promote elementary instruction among the poorer classes, did not meet with the approval of the house of commons. In 1818, he succeeded in getting a commission appointed to inquire into the abuses of the public charitable foundations of the kingdom connected with education. The revelations of this commission, which were eagerly watched for and diffused by Mr. Brougham, eventually bore fruit in the nomination of a permanent commission to watch over the honest appropriation of charitable trusts to the objects contemplated by the founders. In 1818, he published a "Letter to Sir Samuel Romilly, upon the Abuse of Public Charities," which ran through 10 editions. In 1819, he and his friends established a model school for the children of the poorer classes in London. In 1820 and 1821, he was chiefly engaged in the case of Queen Caroline, who claimed her rights as queen-consort. During this period he was Queen Caroline's chief adviser, contributing by his eloquence to obtain a verdict in her favor, and gaining immense popularity by the part which he took in the trial. Two of his speeches in this suit have taken their place among the classic specimens of English oratory. In 1823, he helped to found the first mechanics' institute, of which Dr. Birkbeck was the first president and prime mover. In April of this year, he accused Canning of "the most monstrous truckling for office that the whole history of political tergiversation could present," in reference to the latter's supposed intention of abandoning the cause of Catholic emancipation. Canning cried out, "It is false." The quarrel was composed by the authority of the speaker. In this session he spoke on colonial slavery and the delays in chancery. In 1824, he took up the case of the Rev. John Smith, who expired in a Demerara prison under sentence of death for having, as was charged, incited the slaves to revolt. In 1825, appeared his "Practical Observations upon the Education of the People, addressed to the Working Classes and their Employers," of which 20 editions were sold. In the same year he was elected lord rector of Glasgow university over Sir Walter Scott; Sir James Mackintosh, the previous rector, giving the casting vote in favor of Mr. Brougham. The address which he delivered on occasion of his installation has been preserved, and is also a classic. In the same year he introduced a bill for the incorporation of the London university, which was to be conducted upon the principle of the absence of all religious tests and religious preferences. He was one of the most active promoters of this now celebrated university. He was also one of the "Society for the Diffu

sion of Useful Knowledge," started in 1827. Mr. Brougham was elected chairman of the managing committee, and his discourse on the "Objects, Pleasures, and Advantages of Science," was the first publication of the society. In 1827, he was made a king's counsel, the dislike of George IV. to the counsel of Queen Caroline having delayed the bestowal of this honor for many years. From 1825 to 1830, he spoke constantly in parliament on law reform, Catholic relief, colonial slavery, and the corporation and test acts. His speech of 6 hours' duration, delivered Feb. 7, 1828, in behalf of law reform, indicated the necessity of almost all the legal reforms which have been accomplished in England since that period. During the short administration of Mr. Canning, that statesman received Mr. Brougham's support on account of "his liberal and manly foreign policy." During this period the attorneys, indignant at Mr. Brougham's efforts to reform the law and curtail their profits, formed a combination against him, and pledged themselves to give him no briefs. Mr. Brougham's talent was too tempting to clients to be thus stifled. The plot fell through, and Mr. Brougham earned a larger professional income than he had enjoyed previous to this attempt. In 1830 he resigned his seat for Winchelsea, on the ground of disagreement with his patron, the marquis of Cleveland, and was immediately afterward returned for Knaresborough. At the general election, which ensued upon the accession of William IV., Mr. Brougham stood for Yorkshire, and was returned free of expense. In the course of this canvass, he spoke at 8 different electoral meetings in one day, travelled the same day 120 miles by stage, and appeared fresh next morning at the York assizes. At this time Mr. Brougham occupied the position of leader of the British people, then panting eagerly for reform of parliament. On the formation of the ministry of Earl Grey, he was offered the post of lord chancellor, in the place of Lord Lyndhurst, resigned, with the title of Baron Brougham and Vaux, which was conferred on him in Nov. 1830. In his judicial capacity he excited the astonishment of the chancery bar, long accustomed to the dilatoriness of Lord Eldon, by clearing off all chancery arrears with wonderful rapidity. Party spirit running high, the conservative lawyers accused the new lord chancellor of inaccuracy, but his long and carefully prepared judgments finally succeeded in confuting this impression. Several measures introduced by him into the house of lords for improving the proceedings in bankruptcy, and diminishing his own income by £7,000, became law. With Earl Grey, he bore the principal part in advocating the reform bill in the house of lords. His speech on Oct. 7, 1831, is historical. Mr. Roebuck, in his "History of the Whig Party," says that it was owing to Lord Brougham's astonishing audacity and menaces that William IV. was induced to dissolve the house of commons in 1831. All the measures of reform passed by the first reformed

house of commons received Lord Brougham's support in the house of lords. The dismissal of the whig ministry, Nov. 4, 1834, put an end to his chancellorship and his official life together. He had quarrelled with some of his colleagues, and was disliked by the king; the popular favor which bore him into power had deserted him, and on the reinstalment of a whig cabinet in 1835, Mr. Pepys was made lord chancellor, under the title of Lord Cottenham. Since that time Lord Brougham has enjoyed an ex-chancellor's retiring pension of £5,000 per annum, and has taken an active part in the determination of appeals to the house of peers. Henceforth he was often in antagonism to the whigs; he censured their Canadian policy, and the conduct of Lord Durham, the governor-general of Canada, in particular. The success of this attack has been generally supposed to have been the cause of Lord Durham's speedy death. He remained on the whole true to the liberal cause. His zeal for popular education, the abolition of slavery, and the suppression of the slave trade, and repeal of the corn laws, never slackened. Although ever in favor of the repeal of the corn laws, he was averse to popular agitation, and denounced the league as unconstitutional. In 1839, after a temporary residence in Paris, he published an anonymous pamphlet upon the state of parties in France. Soon after this, he became proprietor of the villa Louise Eléonore, on a beautiful estate in the south of France, near Cannes, overlooking the Mediterranean-his estate in England being Brougham hall, Penrith, Westmoreland, and his London residence No. 4 Grafton street. In 1844, he voted as judicial peer to confirm the sentence of the Irish court of queen's bench upon O'Connell. During the sway of the provisional government of France, in 1848, he applied to it to furnish him with instructions for becoming a French citizen. The reply was that that could only be upon his resigning his titles as an English peer. In 1849, he wrote a "Letter to Lord Lansdowne," violently assailing the men and principles of the revolutionary movement of the continent. Since 1849, Lord Brougham has fairly won the title of the patriarch of law reform; he cooperates with the law amend ment society, and is in favor of the introduction of the New York code of procedure into England.-Lord Brougham married, in 1819, the eldest daughter of Thomas Eden, Esq., of Wimbledon, by whom he had one daughter, who died at the age of 17. In 1833 he was elected a foreign associate of the institute of France, and later, of the royal academy of sciences of Naples. In 1850, '52, and '53, he made experiments on the properties of light, which were communicated to the royal society of his own country, and the academy of sciences at Paris, and published in the transactions of both. In 1855, conjointly with Mr. E. J. Routh, he published "An Analytical View of Sir Isaac Newton's Principia." The collected edition of his "Speeches published in 1838 (Edinburgh), and later, his

was

แ

BROUGHTON'S ARCHIPELAGO

Speeches at the Bar, and in Parliament," by Longman, of London. Soon after his loss of office, he brought out, in conjunction with Sir Charles Bell, an annotated edition of Paley's "Natural Theology." In 1839-43 appeared his series of "Sketches of Statesmen who flourished in the time of George III.," and in 1845 his“ Lives of Men of Letters and Science who flourished in the time of George III." An edition and translation of the Demosthenic oration "On the Crown," sums up his literary products in the field of Greek literature. Three volumes of his " Political Philosophy" have been published, beside many minor works. His "Speeches on Social and Political Subjects," with a historical introduction, appeared at London and Glasgow in 1857, in 2 vols. 12mo. Among the latest productions of Lord Brougham is a valuable dissertation, read by him, May 18, 1858, before the French academy, on "Analytical and Experimental Inquiries on the cells of Bees,' and his speech, delivered June 17, 1858, in the house of lords, on the suppression of the slave trade.

BROUGHAM, JOHN, an Irish actor and playwright, born in Dublin, May 9, 1810. He was intended for the medical profession, but the prospect of a government clerkship took him to London, where, being disappointed in this hope, he gave lessons in drawing for some time, and finally became an actor at the Olympic theatre, then managed by Madame Vestris. He gradually worked his way up to the Haymarket theatre, where he made a very successful first appearance, in June, 1832, as Looney MacTwolter, in the "Review." He soon was accepted by the public as a good light comedian and Irishman; occasionally writing farces and other small dramas. In 1842, he came to America, appeared at the Park theatre, New York, as Tim Moore, in the "Irish Lion," and has subsequently performed in almost every principal theatre in the Union. Having managed a theatre in Boston, he built the Lyceum (now Wallack's), in New York, in 1850, but relinquished it at the end of two seasons. He also managed the Bowery theatre, New York, in 1856-57. Mr. Brougham is a very popular actor. He is author of various comedies, dramas, and extravaganzas; he has also successfully adapted pieces from the novels of Dickens and Bulwer. He has collected some of his fugitive prose stories and articles into 2 volumes, called "A Basket of Chips," and "The Bunsby Papers."

BROUGHTON, THOMAS, a learned theologian and one of the first writers in the "Biographia Britannica," born in London, July 5, 1704, died Dec. 21, 1774. His musical taste made him an acceptable coadjutor to Handel, for several of whose compositions it is understood that he furnished the words.

BROUGHTON'S ARCHIPELAGO, a collection of islands named after their discoverer, an Englishman, situated on the north-west coast of North America, and extending from long. 125° to 12° 70′ W., and from lat. 50° 33′ to 51° N.

www

BROUNCKER, WILLIAM, Viscount, of Castle Lyons, in Ireland, a mathematician and publicist, born in 1620, died in 1684. In 1657 and 1658 he was engaged in a correspondence on mathematical subjects with Dr. John Wallis, who published his letters in the Commercium Epistolicum. During the civil wars he adhered to the cause of the crown, and after the restoration was made chancellor to the queen consort, a commissioner of the navy, and master of St. Catharine's hospital. He was one of the founders of the royal society, and its first president. BROUSSA, or BRUSA (anc. Prusias, also Prusa ad Olympum, from being situated at the foot of Mount Olympus), a town in the Turkish government of Anatolia, in Asia Minor, the capital of the district of Khudavendkiar, about 57 miles S. S. E. of Constantinople, was celebrated for the extent of its commerce in silk and other goods, and for its beautiful situation, until 1855, when the town was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, burying hundreds of the inhabitants among its ruins, and compelling the rest of the population (consisting, according to the census of 1852, of 73,000, of whom 11,000 were Armenians, 6,000 Greeks, and a small number Jews,) to resort to flight. Among those thus suddenly driven away from Broussa was Abd el Kader, who had resided here since 1853, Broussa was the ancient capital of Bithynia, deriving its name from Prusias, one of the early Bithynian kings. Under the Romans it was the residence of Pliny the Younger and of other Roman governors. Wrested from the hands of the Greek emperors by Orkhan, the son of the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, it became the seat of the new empire, till Amurath removed the seat of government to Adrianople. The tombs of the ancient sultans, the mosques, of which there were at least 300, and other remarkable buildings, handsome bath-houses, a vast number of private and public fountains, fine gardens, extensive bazaars, and the superb view from Mount Olympus, all contributed to enhance the beauty of the ill-fated town. Kossuth resided for some time at Broussa, after his flight from Hungary. BROUSSAIS, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH VICTOR, a French physician, born at Saint Malo, Dec. 17, 1772, died at Vitry, near Paris, Nov. 17, 1838. His early years were passed at Pleurtuit, a small village in which his father was established as a medical practitioner. At the age of 12, Broussais was sent to school at Dinan, where he was pursuing his studies when the great revolution broke out in 1789. He was enrolled in a body of volunteers and joined the army. At the end of 2 years he obtained leave to return home, on account of sickness. On his recovery he be came a student of medicine, and was appointed as an officer of health, first in the hospital of St. Malo, and afterward in that of Bryt. He soon obtained a commission as surgeon on board of a ship of war, and was present in several battles against the English. He held a good appointment at Bryt from 1795 to 1798; but being anxious to pursue a course of study at Paris, he

removed there, with his wife, in 1799. Bichat was then one of the most influential men in the medical schools of Paris, and Broussais lost no time in making his acquaintance. They soon became intimate friends, and remained so until Bichat died, in 1802. Broussais received his diploma of doctor of medicine in 1803; and, through the influence of Desgenettes, obtained an appointment as military surgeon, in 1804 Two years later he was sent to the camp at Boulogne, but the project of invading England being abandoned, the army was marched through Europe, and Broussais went with it in all its campaigns through Germany, Holland, Italy, and Spain. Studious in the midst of military life, he began to meditate on the various causes of disease, and the symptoms which are common to most kinds of organic and functional derange ment. In 1808 he obtained leave to go to Paris to superintend the publication of his "History of Chronic Inflammations." This work, which contains the germs of all his future doctrines, met with little notice at the time; for, although Pinel praised it highly, and it was honorably noticed by the institute, he could not obtain for it more than $150, and nearly the whole edition remained unsold until 1816. Soon after this publication, in 1808, he was appointed chief physician to a division of the French army in Spain, where he remained 6 years, pursuing his researches and attending to the duties of his office. In 1814 he was appointed assistant professor at the military hospital of the Val de Grâce in Paris. He commenced a course of lectures on practical medicine, in which ho attempted to form a system and a school of his own, in opposition to the doctrines of Pinel, then taught in the established schools of medicine. His lectures were attended by great numbers of students, who accepted his ideas with enthusiasm. In 1816 he published his Examen des doctrines médicales, which excited the dis-. like and opposition of the whole medical faculty of Paris. By degrees his doctrines gained approval, and were admitted in the writings and the practice of many eminent physicians. They were taught even in the medical school itself, long before 1831, when Broussais was appointed professor of general pathology in the academy of medicine, which office he held until his death. Beside the two works above mentioned, he published in 1824 his Traité de la physiologie appliquée à la pathologie; in 1829, his Commentaires des propositions de pathologie consignees dans l'examen; in 1832, Le choléra morbus épidémique.—The life of Broussais presents 3 distinct periods. In the first, he labored with all his might to prove that the doctrines of Pinel with regard to the essentiality of fever were erroneous, and that some morbid agent, producing irritation and inflammation, was the cause of all disease. From 1816 to 1821 he was occupied in controverting the established theories, from this point of view, and with entire success. His followers then complained that he had shown the fallacy of Pinel's theory, but

had not sufficiently elaborated a new doctrine to replace it. From 1821 to 1828, he labored to establish what he called the "physiological system of medicine," in opposition to the "ontological" system of Pinel. The "History of Chronic Inflammations" had prepared the way for his theory of irritation in the organs, corresponding to a principle of irritability in the organism. He therefore proclaimed this doctrine as the basis of all medical truth, and he sustained his views, with much ability and general success, from 1821 to 1828. It was the doctrine taught by Brown in Edinburgh, more than 30 years before; and had already met with much success in England, Germany, and Italy, though little known in France, until revived by Broussais under a new form, and to a great extent, no doubt, by a natural train of reasoning from the same point of view, more than from a servile imitation of Brown's system. Broussais had immense success in France and Belgium for 7 years, where this theory was practically new, and very rational, compared with Pinel's views. In England and in Germany it met with less success, because it had been known as the doctrine of Brown; and though very true in many points, it was nevertheless insufficient to explain all the phenomena of health and disease. The same opinion arose in France after a 7 years' practical trial of the system; and after being greatly lauded and admired, Broussais was deserted by the students and professors of medicine. The partial truth of his views was admitted, but other principles and doctrines were wanted to explain the physiological and pathological phenomena of life. In nervous diseases it afforded no assistance, but left the student as much in the dark as he was before; and this was admitted by his own partisans, and partly by Broussais himself. To make his system more complete, he undertook a series of observations on the nervous system, and its relations to psychology. Although he had been up to that time more or less opposed to phrenology, he turned his attention to the subject, gave public lectures on it, and in 1836 published an octavo volume under the title of Cours de phrénologie. This work had a temporary run of popularity, but it failed to make an abiding impression. Broussais's theory was on the wane, as a partial view of truth, not containing a complete and unitary principle of science. The labors of Dr. Marshall Hall, Dr. Brown-Séquard, and other eminent physiologists of the present day, have done much to advance the science of medicine in the directions which Broussais had left unexplored.

BROUSSONNET, PIERRE AUGUSTE, a French physician and naturalist, born at Montpellier, Feb. 28, 1761, died there July 9, 1807. He was the first who introduced the botanical system of Linnæus into France. He also caused the first flock of merino sheep to be brought thither from Spain, and the first Angora goats to be imported from the Levant. He was a member of the national assembly and

the convention; but giving umbrage to the terrorists, he was cast into prison, from which he succeeded, however, in escaping to Madrid. Here he encountered the persecutions of French emigrated nobles, and was reduced to great poverty, when Sir Joseph Banks, whose acquaintance he had made during visit to London, sent him a gift of $5,000, and procured him a passage to India in an English ship. The vessel in which he had embarked was forced into Lisbon harbor by a storm, and, experiencing here fresh persecutions, he passed over to Africa, where he procured employment as physician at Morocco, and resumed his botanical and zoological studies. Under the empire he was appointed French consul at Mogadore and the Canaries; and in 1805, on his return to France, he was made a member of the legislative assembly. He was a member of the principal learned bodies of France, and author of several botanical, zoological, and medical works of great value; but his most important work is his Ichthyologia, seu Piscium Descriptiones et Icones, published in London in 1792.

BROWN, the name of counties in several of the United States. I. A south-western county of Ohio, bordering on the Ohio river, and having an area of 502 sq. m. The surface near the river is hilly; but in other portions, level or gently undulating. The natural excellence of the soil is much enhanced by good cultivation, and the crops of corn, wheat, oats, hay, and tobacco are usually abundant. Cattle and swine are raised in considerable numbers. The productions in 1850 were 1,209,485 bushels of Indian corn, 192,065 of wheat, 180,810 of oats, and 1,279,510 lbs. of tobacco. There were 20 corn and flour mills, 19 saw mills, 5 woollen factories, 8 tanneries, 61 churches, and 3 newspaper offices. The Cincinnati and Hillsborough railroad passes near the N. border. Pop. in 1850, 27,332. Capital, Georgetown. II. A southern county of Indiana, watered by Bean Blossom and Salt creeks. Area, 320 sq. m. Its surface is finely diversified by hills and valleys, and the soil is generally productive, yielding wheat, corn, oats, and pasturage. Much of the land is well wooded with the oak, hickory, elm, sugar-maple, walnut, and other trees. The productions in 1850 were 179,304 bushels of Indian corn, 14,154 of wheat, 18,704 of oats, and 10,029 lbs. of wool. The county contained 6 grist and 2 saw mills, 10 tanneries, and 2 churches. Organized in 1836, and named in honor of Gen. Jacob Brown. Pop. in 1850, 4,846. Capital, Nashville. III. A western county of Illinois, on the W. bank of Illinois river. Area, 320 sq. m. The surface is occupied partly by prairies and partly by woodlands. There are few considerable elevations. The soil is highly fertile, and well cultivated. Wheat, corn, oats, cattle, and swine are the chief productions. In 1850 it yielded 513,118 bushels of Indian corn, 76,658 of wheat, 51,325 of oats, 3,000 tons of hay, and 71,569 lbs. of butter. There were 6 grist mills, 10 saw mills,

4 tanneries, 1 newspaper office, 14 churches, and 1,662 pupils attending public schools. Several railroads have been projected, which are to intersect the country. Pop. in 1855, 7,940. Capital, Mount Sterling. IV. A north-eastern county of Wisconsin, at the head of Green bay, intersected by Fox or Neenah river, and having an area of 525 sq. m. At the time of its formation, in 1818, it was much larger. The surface is uneven, and some of the soil fertile. The productions in 1850 were 11,462 bushels of Indian corn, 6,212 of wheat, 17,674 of potatoes, and 2,486 tons of hay. There were in the county 3 grist mills, 24 saw mills, 1 newspaper office, 4 churches, and 360 pupils attending public schools. Assessed value of real estate in 1855, $565,789. A large part of the surface was formerly densely wooded, and there are still some tracts of good timber. Several railroads radiating from Green Bay, the county seat, have been projected, and one designed to connect that city with Milwaukee has been commenced. The channel of water communication between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi, effected by the improvement and connection of Fox and Wisconsin rivers, passes through this county. Pop. in 1855, 6,699. V. A central county of Texas, intersected by Pecan bayou, and bounded on the S. by the Colorado river. The surface is undulating and hilly, with occasional tracts of rolling prairie, the soil of which is exceedingly rich. There is little timber of any consequence, except along the water courses; but pasturage is abundant, and stock-raising forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants. The county was organized Aug. 27, 1856. Capital not yet chosen.

BROWN, a distinguished family of AngloAmerican merchants. ALEXANDER BROWN, born at Ballymena, county of Antrim, Ireland, Nov. 17, 1764, died in Baltimore, April 6, 1834, came to the United States with his 4 sons in 1800, settling as a general merchant at Baltimore, and subsequently associating his sons with him, under the firm of Alexander Brown and Sons. His eldest son WILLIAM, born at Ballymena, May 4, 1784, was associated with his father at Baltimore, returned to his native country in 1808, and established himself in 1810 as a merchant in Liverpool. The house thus established by him has been carried on under various firms, and is now known under that of Brown, Shipley, and Co. Having contributed large sums toward the support of the free trade party in south Lancashire, he was nominated as a candidate for parliament in 1844, and after a sharp contest was beaten by the Egerton interest. In 1845 he was returned without opposition, and has retained the position at all succeeding elections. His commercial position gives him much influence in the house of commons, though he is rarely heard in debate. He is very decided in his liberal opinions, having voted for ballot, household suffrage, and other liberal measures. He was one of the early and zealous champions of free

trade, and published in 1850 a series of papers on the subject, which attracted much attention. At the dawn of his career in Liverpool, he took an active part with Mr. Huskisson in reforming the management of the Liverpool docks estate, and he continues to take a most cordial interest in the prosperity of Liverpool. He has contributed £30,000 to the great library at Liverpool, of which the foundation stone was laid April 15, 1857. Mr. Brown is a magistrate and deputy lieutenant of Lancashire, where he has some landed property and a beautiful residence, Richmond Hill, near Liverpool. He is president of the Honduras interoceanic railway company, takes a prominent part in various other great enterprises, and has gained the respect and esteem of the merchants of both countries by his zeal in behalf of the development of all forms of international intercourse between Great Britain and the United States.-GEORGE, 2d son of Alexander, born April 17, 1787, has continued his residence in Baltimore, and carries on business there under the old firm of Alexander Brown and Sons.-JOHN A., 3d son, born May 21, 1788, removed to Philadelphia in 1818, establishing a house there under the firm of John A. Brown and Co., from which he retired in 1838, but which is still continued under the firm of Brown and Bowen, as a branch of the house of Brown, Brothers, and Co. of N. Y.-JAMES, 4th son of Alexander, born Feb. 4, 1791, removed to New York in 1825, and established there in that year the house of Brown, Brothers, and Co. of New York, of which he is yet the head.-In the commercial world the houses of Brown, Shipley, and Co. of Liverpool, and of Brown, Brothers, and Co. of New York, occupy weighty and commanding positions.

BROWN, AARON VENABLE, Postmaster-general of the United States, born Aug. 15, 1795, in Brunswick co., Va., graduated at the university of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1814; studied law, and soon after commenced practice in Nashville, Tenn. He was partner in business with the late President Polk, until the latter entered upon his congressional career; served in almost all the sessions of the legislature of Tennessee between 1821 and 1832; was a member of the house of representatives in congress from 1839 to 1845; and was in that year elected governor of Tennessee. He was a delegate to the southern convention held at Nashville in 1850, and submitted a report to that body known as the Tennessee platform. He was also a member of the convention of the democratic party at Baltimore in 1852, to which he reported the platform adopted by them. In 1857 he became a member of President Buchanan's cabinet, in which he held the office of postmaster-general.

BROWN, ALBERT G., U. S. senator from Mississippi, born in Chester district, S. C., July 31, 1813, removed with his parents to Mississippi, while a child, was appointed a brigadiergeneral in the state militia when only 19, ad