BELFAST, a seaport town and parliamentary borough of Ireland, county of Antrim, 88 miles N. N. E. of Dublin; pop. in 1841, 75,308; in 1851, 99,660. It is on the Lagan, near its embouchure in Belfast bay. The site of the greater part of the town is low and flat, having been reclaimed from the marshy banks of the Lagan. The river is 250 yards wide, and was formerly crossed by a bridge of 21 arches, erected in 1682. In 1840, this was replaced by an elegant stone bridge of 5 arches, each of 50 feet span. The houses of the town are mostly of brick. The streets are regular and spacious, macadamized, and well lighted; and the enterprise and activity of the inhabitants, particularly the mercantile class, have given Belfast the reputation of being the first commercial town in Ireland. It has numerous places of worship. At the head of its educational institutions is the queen's college, built of brick and stone, at an expense of upward of £25,000, and opened in 1849. For the maintenance of the institution, £7,000 a year is allowed. There are, beside, the royal academical institution, founded in 1810; the Belfast academy, the Lancasterian school, and numerous national schools and private seminaries. Belfast has many charitable and benevolent institutions; a natural history society; a royal botanical and horticultural society; a society for the promotion of knowledge; a teachers' association; and a mechanics' institute. It is the great depot of the linen trade of the north of Ireland, and is also the chief seat of manufactures of cotton and linen, which furnish work to upward of 1,200 people. There are, also, distilleries, breweries, flour mills, founderies, tan-yards, vitriol works, a felt manufactory, saw mills, extensive ship and rope yards. Steamers ply regularly between Belfast and London, Liverpool, Fleetwood, Carlisle, Whitehaven, Glasgow, Greenock, Stranraer, Androssan, and Dublin. In 1853, 5,711 vessels (768,500 tons) entered the port. Belfast is a comparatively modern town. It was erected into a municipality and parliamentary borough early in the 17th century. Three railways diverge from it: N. W., the Ballymena and Carrickfergus railway; N. E., the County Down, and S. W., the Ulster railway, in connection with a line to Dublin.

BELGE, one of the 3 peoples who divided the possession of the whole of Gaul among them, at the time of its invasion and conquest by Julius Cæsar. The other 2 were the Celts and Aquitanians, the former possessing the middle of France, from the British channel and the Seine and Marne to the bay of Biscay and the river Garonne, which divided them from the Aquitani. The Belga occupied, therefore, nearly the country which constitutes, at present, the kingdoms of Belgium and Holland. It is not a settled point among ethnologists how far the Belgae and Celta of Gaul were of different or kindred races; nor at what time, whether previous or subsequent to this period, the intermigrations with Britain occurred, which

had as their result the establishment of a Cambro-Briton, rather than a Celtic population, on the southern shore of the channel, from the mouth of the Seine to Douarnenez bay; nor is it well ascertained whether the Celts of Gaul were analogous to, or identical with-as their name would seem to indicate-the Celtic Gaël of the highlands of Scotland; or with the Erse Celts of Ireland; or, lastly, with the Cambro Celts of southern and western England. It is assumed, however, from many considerations, that the Belgae had at least a mixture of Teutonic blood, if they were not Teutons; and this the obstinacy and doggedness of their characters, and the absence of that nervous and irritable mobility, both of intellect and temper, which Cæsar especially ascribes to the Celtic Gauls of his day, and which continues to the present hour to be a characteristic of the purely Celtic races, seems to give reason for accepting as truth.

BELGAUM, a town in the presidency of Bombay, British India, and the head-quarters of the southern division of the Bombay army. Its site is elevated and healthy, and it is strongly fortified. The British captured this place in 1818, after a long and vigorous siege. Pop. about 8,000.

BELGIOJOSO, a town of Lombardy, northern Italy, containing a fine castle belonging to the princes of Belgiojoso. Francis I. passed the night in the castle after his defeat at Pavia, Feb. 24, 1525. Pop. of the town, 3,000.

BELGIOJOSO, CRISTINA TRIVULZIO, princess of, born in Milan, June 28, 1808, of the illustrious family of the Trivulzios, which had been Guelphic for centuries, always standing for the political liberty and national independence of Italy. Her education was directed by the celebrated Manzoni; and thus by culture, as well as under hereditary tradition, her mind was developed in the love of freedom and of her country. In the year 1824, she was married to the prince Emiglio di Belgiojoso, a scion of the house of Este. This union did not prove happy for the princess. Some time after the marriage, she resided successively in Florence, Naples, and Rome. The French revolution of 1830 found her at Geneva. Shortly afterward a movement took place in Romagna, and one was preparing in Lombardy, when the princess went to Paris to ascertain the intentions of the French cabinet and of Louis Philippe. She met with a cordial reception at the capital, and her saloons were at once filled with the most eminent political and scientific men. Lafayette was an intimate, confidential, and daily visitor. The strong preventive measures of Austria, however, left to the patriots of Lombardy no hope of a successful rising, and the suspected chiefs avoided, by a seasonable escape, the dungeons of Spielberg, Carinthia, and Ilungary. Count Appony, the Austrian ambassador at the court of the Tuileries, intimated to the princess that she must either return to Milan, or that her immense estates

would be put under sequestration, and finally confiscated. She did not hesitate a moment; in one day she dismissed her household and carriages, abandoned the luxuries of a palace, and took a small apartment several stories high. Here she was not deserted by French society; savants, statesmen, artists, paid her even more court in those mean lodgings than in her former splendor. It was suggested that she might profit by her varied talents. Being skilled in drawing, she undertook to make the likenesses of the prominent men of all parties in the chamber of deputies, of whom M. Bichon and others were to write biographies. Several drawings were thus made, but a severe illness interrupted the undertaking. During these years of honorable poverty the princess attended the lectures of the college of France, of the Sorbonne, of the reformer Buchez, and many others. No new idea or tendency escaped her attention, and she became familiar with the whole philosophical and social movement of that epoch. Her small parlor served as a lecture room for savants and thinkers, among them the original German Hoëne Wronsky, and the celebrated Italian, Orrioli. In the course of the year 1834, the Austrian government, yielding to the entreaties of the mother of the princess, who lived at Milan, somewhat mitigated its severity, and allowed a small portion of her previous in come of about $140,000 a year to reach her. Some time afterward, through the interference of her friends, and principally through that of Mignet, the celebrated historian, a stanch supporter and favorite of Louis Philippe, and that of Marshal Sebastiani, Louis Philippe obtained from Prince Metternich the restoration of her fortune. About the same time the Saint Simonians, then led by Enfantin, Michel Chevalier, and Duvergier, elected her as the representative of the living law in the name of woman made socially equal with man in the new religion which they were then preaching, but she declined the honor. Restored to her estates, the princess devoted her time, income, and even her capital, to ameliorating the condition of her Italian peasantry, establishing numerous elementary schools and asylums for children, endowing marriageable girls, and organizing regular distributions of food among the poor. Always prompt to alle viate human suffering, when Augustin Thierry lost his wife, who was his reader, the princess undertook to become the amanuensis of the great historian. Some writings now appeared under her name. They aimed at a catholic philosophy in imitation of the Abbé Bautin, with a strong tinge of the Italian spirit. In 1847, she went to Italy, then fermenting with the reforms of Pius IX. She visited Geneva, Florence, Rome, Naples, and took up her residence in Milan. When Milan and Lombardy rose, she proffered her whole fortune to the patriotic cause, and at her own cost equipped several hundreds of volunteers, but her energetic counsels were not followed. When fate de

cided against Italy on the plains of Custozza, and Milan surrendered to the enemy, the princess retired to Rome. During the siege by the French army, she animated by her fervor the defenders of the city. She presided over the hospitals, and in company with the American, Margaret Fuller, devoted night and day to assuaging the sufferings of the wounded. On the fall of Rome, when the revolutionists were sent into exile, the princess shared their lot and went to Malta, whose Irish commander refused them a landing. They then went to Athens, the heroic woman sharing the common sufferings and dividing her scanty purse with her companions. From Athens she went to Constantinople, and there earned a humble livelihood by corresponding with American and European journals, her fortune having once more been confiscated. Finally, she resided several years in Asia Minor, under the special protection of the sultan, who gave her a grant of land near Nicomedia. After travelling in Syria, she was on her return to Constantinople, when she was murderously attacked by one of her servants. But the wound was not fatal. After her recovery, she returned to Europe and arrived at Paris. In 1855 her fortune was restored to her by the Austrian government; but she still resides at the French capital. Though educated in all the refinements of wealth and luxury, she has twice deliberately sacrificed her fortune to her convictions, and deliberately chosen poverty and exile. The versatility of her intellectual powers is remarkable. She has been able to learn and comprehend the most various and opposite sciences. She mastered mathematics, in which Arago was her teacher, and solved the highest problems with the same facility as song and music. She studied and mastered the Chinese. Her manners are marked by that graceful ease and simplicity peculiar to Italian women, with a modesty of mind peculiar to herself, and without any disposition to make a show of her superior acquirements. A work illustrative of Asiatic life, by the princess Belgiojoso, has recently been published in Paris. Her husband, who was one of the most famous amateurs of music in Europe, and remarkable for his handsome person, died at Milan at the beginning of 1858.

BELGIUM (Fr. La Belgique, Ger. Belgien), a kingdom of Europe, situated between the north-western part of France and Holland, Germany, and the North sea, and extending from 49° 31' to 51° 27′ of N. lat., and from 2° 37' to 6° of E. long.; area, 2,942,574 hectares, equal to about 7,273,612 acres; pop. in 1816, rather above 3,000,000; in 1832, 4,064,235; in 1849, 4,359,090; in 1856, 4,530,228. Its greatest length from S. E. to N. W. is 173 English miles, and its greatest breadth, from the most northern part of Antwerp to the most southern part of Hainaut, is 112 miles. This area and population are distributed in 9 provinces, as follows:

Antwerp. Brabant. Flanders, W Flanders, E.. Hainaut. Liége

Limburg.. Luxembourg Namur..

699,778 394,792 413,824 434,485 810,958 671,504 711,832 748,840 798,916 669,219 626,847 624,912 740,474 621,701 781,143 776,960

919,346 728,997 723,539 769,541 714,618 518,535 460,663 503,654 596,048 381,183 185,621 191,708 1,091,009 871,636 187,978 198,758

904,465 447,826 265,143 286,075 7,275,612 4,800,393 4,859,090 4,530,228

The chief city of Belgium is Brussels, pop. in 1856, 150,000. The other important cities are Antwerp, pop. 79,000, Bruges, pop. 49,600, Ghent, pop. 115,296, Liége, pop. 80,245, Namur, pop. 23,500, and Malines, pop. 23,300. The surface of Belgium is generally level. In the east there are some high and well-wooded lands, connected with the Vosges mountains. Near Malmedy there is also a wild tract of elevated country of small extent, the highest elevation not exceeding 2,300 feet. Between the Meuse and the Scheldt there is another ridge. The rivers of Belgium are the Meuse, the Scheldt, the Ourthe, and the Sambre. The Meuse runs part of its course only in Belgium, rising in France and passing through the provinces of Namur and Liége. It is navigable throughout its Belgian course. The Scheldt rises in France, enters Belgium in the province of Hainaut, and runs across the Belgian territory, passing into Holland below Antwerp. It is navigable throughout Belgium, but the sand banks at its mouth interfere with its navigation, and the policy of the Dutch government not encouraging a removal of them, the commerce of Antwerp suffers materially. The Ourthe rises in the Ardennes, and falls into the Meuse at Liége. The Sambre flows from France into Belgium, and falls into the Meuse at Namur.-The northern part of Belgium is of tertiary formation. In the southeastern provinces the lower formations are red sandstone and limestone, resting upon granite, quartz, and slate. Fossil animals are very numerous; the limestone caverns through which the river Lesse has made its way are remarkable natural curiosities. E. and W. Flanders are principally sand. After England, Belgium yields more fuel than any other country in Europe, the coal-fields producing in 1855 8,500,000 of tons (representing a value of nearly $20,000,000), of which are consumed in the country, and the rest exported to France and Holland. The production of iron is also large, amounting in 1855 to 750,000 tons. The best iron is found in the country between the Sambre and the Meuse. Lead, manganese, and other minerals, especially zinc, are found in various parts of the country. The most celebrated zinc mines are between Liége and Aix la Chapelle. The country abounds at the same time in building, paving, and lime stones, roofing slate, and marble. The black marble of Dissant is renowned for its beauty. The min

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eral wealth of Belgium is, next to agriculture, the most important source of her national prosperity. The most celebrated mineral springs of Belgium are at the famous watering place Spa, which is situated near the frontier of Rhenish Prussia. Another popular watering place of Belgium is Ostend, to which many visitors resort for the purpose of bathing in the sea. The canals, though numerous, are not equal in length to those of Holland, being about 300 miles. The greatest of these is the Brussels canal, supplied by the river Lenne, which was opened in 1550. Ghent is connected with the sea by a canal opening into the E. Scheldt, in some measure accounting for the Dutch control of the mouth of that river. It admits vessels drawing 18 feet. The railways of Belgium were the earliest of continental Europe, and rapidly followed those of England, which they have surpassed in unity of design and economy of construction. Soon after King Leopold's accession, he took measures to establish railways. The country was surveyed and levelled by government engineers, the lines decided on, and the permanent way was constructed at the expense of the country. Mechlin, on account of superior engineering advantages, was made the centre of the system. The policy of low fares and good accommodation was adopted, and the result, if not one of success as a commercial speculation, has answered the aims of a wise government.-There are nearly 550 miles of railway now open, paying 33 per cent. interest on their outlay. The receipts of the public treasury from railways in 1856 were 22,780,000 francs, and in 1857, 23,780,000 francs. The total cost of the earth works and permanent way has been $33,268,961, raised in 5 national loans. Electric telegraphs have been in operation since March 15, 1851, and belong to the government.-The Roman Catholic religion is predominant in Belgium. The stipends of ministers of all denominations are derived from the state. archbishop of Malines is the Catholic primate. There are government universities at Ghent and Liége, a Roman Catholic university at Louvain, and a free university at Brussels. There are superior public schools in most of the cities, beside the primary schools throughout the kingdom; and a great number of schools have been established for instruction in particular branches of industry-agricultural processes, chemistry, design. The number of journals gradually rose from 34 in 1830 to about 200 in 1848, of which from 50 to 60 were published in the Flemish language and the rest chiefly in French. The abolition of the stamp tax in the latter year and the reduction of the rate of postage have given a further impetus to the circulation of newspapers, and their number has been continually increasing within the last 10 years. The Indépendance Belge, a liberal journal published at Brussels, and originally established in 1831, under the name of Independent, has the largest circula

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tion and about 9,000 subscribers. The Obsercateur, established at Brussels since 1835, is less conservative in its tone, and the other first-class journals in the liberal interest are the Précurseur, issued at Antwerp since 1835 (an important shipping and commercial paper), the Journal de Liége, published in the latter city (one of the oldest journals of Belgium, established during the Spanish and Austrian rule), the Messager de Gand, the principal political journal of Ghent, the Journal de Verviers, De Schelde, the best Flemish journal of Antwerp, and the Burgerwelzyn, an important Flemish organ, published at Bruges. The other political journals which enjoy the largest patronage, are the Emancipation of Brussels (in the interest of the so-called Catholic party), the Journal de Bruxelles (the official organ of the ultramontane party), the Gazette de Liége, the Journal d'Anvers, the Conservateur, and the Standaert (the latter in Flemish), published at Ghent, and the Ami de l'ordre, at Namur. The principal organs of the democratic party are the Nation, of Brussels, the Tribune, of Liége, and the Reforme, of Verviers. The Etoile Belge and the Télégraphe (the latter in existence since Sept. 1854), are anti-Bonapartist journals, published at Brussels. The Nord, which appeared within the last few years at Brussels, is a journal dedicated to the interests and policy of Russia. The organ of the government is the Moniteur Belge, in existence since 1831. The independent and general newspapers of largest circulation are the Echo de Bruxelles and the Journal de Belgique, both published at the capital, where also 2 satirical prints flourish, namely, the Sancho and the Mephistopheles. The principal historical magazine is the Messager des sciences historiques, published at Ghent since 1833. The most eminent polemical periodicals are the Revue catholique (conducted by the professors of the university of Louvaine), the Journal historique et littéraire (a rigidly orthodox publication, conducted with great ability by Kersten, of Liége), and the Revue Trimestrielle, progressive in its tendencies, which appeared at Brussels since 1854. The principal Flemish magazine is the Taalverbond of Antwerp. The principal religious papers for the Roman Catholic interests are, the Précis historiques, littéraires et scientifiques, in existence since 1852, and for the Protestants the Glaneur missionnaire, established in 1844, and the Chrétien Belge et l'Union, in existence since 1850. The principal organ of industrial enterprises is the Bulletin de l'industrie, of fine arts the Renaissance, of music the Gazette musicale. The principal periodical devoted to the cause of education is the Moniteur de l'enseignement, published at Tournai, while jurisprudence, medicine, and other sciences are equally represented by magazines, which all sprung up within the last 20 years. Literature and science are much indebted for their progress to the efforts of the various academies of sciences, of which the institu

tion of Brussels is the most important, and to the encouragement of the government. Ouetelet, in the field of mathematics; Nothomb, de Gerlache, Gachard, Borguet, and others, in the sphere of history; Conscience, the Flemish novelist, Bormans, Blommaert, &c., in the science of philology; Willems, the eminent Flemish scholar, in the same branch of knowledge; Bériot, Vieuxtemps, Fétis, in music; Gallait, de Keyser, van Eyken, Verboekhoven, &c., in painting; Jehotte, Fraikin, &c., in statuary, and many other contemporaneous names in various other branches of literature, science, and art, attest the growth and intellectual activity of this young and prosperous country.—The agriculture of Belgium is not surpassed by that of any nation. The originally unfavorable soil has by generations of careful culture been raised to great productiveness. Large farms are rare, the subdivisions of the soil have been carried down to garden size, and less than

of the whole area of the kingdom is unprofitable. Flax is an object of peculiar care in Belgium, and the Belgian system of cultivation is studied everywhere. E. and W. Flanders alone produce flax to the value of $8,000,000 annually. The artificial grasses are also generally productive, while the production of root crops by artificial manure is matter of elaborate study and attention. Belgium is celebrated for its horses, of which it possesses nearly 300,000. Those of the Ardennes are excellent cavalry horses, and those of Namur are famous draught horses. The number of cattle exceeds 1,000,000, and of sheep 700,000. The government pays special attention to the improvement of horses and cattle.-In commercial pursuits and manufactures, Belgium has long enjoyed the highest reputation. But the fame of her linens and woven goods had somewhat deteriorated from their high estimation in the 14th century, until the separation from Holland. The lace of Brussels and Mechlin, the linens and damasks of Cambray and Liége, the woollens of Ypres, the cotton goods, carpets, and hosiery, compete with the productions of the French and English looms. The machine factory of Cockerill and Co., founded at Liége in 1816, is one of the greatest works of the kind in Europe. Liége has a cannon foundery, and is noted for its manufactories of firearms.-The foreign commerce of Belgium during its connection with Holland suffered for the sake of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and judicious plans of internal improvement have since occupied the national attention. The entries at the Belgian ports, chiefly Antwerp and Ostend, in 1855, were 2,558 vessels, of 441,554 tons, and the clearances were 2,507 vessels, of 432,457 tons. The imports for the same year were 354,708,000, and the exports 375,231,000 francs. The imports from the United States to Dec. 1857, were $1,950,698, and the exports to that country $5,060,311. The revenue of Belgium for 1857 was 138,604,990 francs, and the expenditure 136,630,758.

The public debt was created by the assumption of 220,000,000 francs of the enormous debt of the kingdom of Netherlands at the time of the separation, and now consists of 635,946,647 francs, a large portion of which has been expended at home, as, for instance, in the railways. The military force of the kingdom, according to the law of June 8, 1853, consists on the war footing of 100,000 men, beside the national guard. The actual standing army in 1857 was, however, 73,718 men.The history of Belgium as an independent state dates from 1830, at which time it was separated from the kingdom of the Netherlands. After the decay of the Roman empire a number of independent nobles established themselves in Belgium, among whom the counts of Flanders rose to historical distinction; for failure of male heirs their possessions devolved to the house of Burgundy, in 1385, which gradually extended its influence, by conquest or treaty, over the greater part of the Netherlands. On the death of Charles the Bold, his daughter Mary, the greatest heiress of Europe, married Maximilian, emperor of Germany, and in his successor Charles V. the rule of the Flemish provinces was joined to the crowns of Spain and Austria. Both Maximilian and Charles respected the freedom and rights of their industrious and stout-hearted Batavian and Belgian subjects, and were careful to make no encroachments. But Philip II., at once a fanatic and a despot, severely tried their patience, and his fiscal exactions, with the establishment of the inquisition, drove them to that famous revolt which ended in the independence of the United Provinces, and the confirmation of the yoke of Spain on the necks of the Belgians. From this period Belgium followed the fortunes of Spain. In 1598 Philip bestowed the Flemish provinces on his daughter Isabella and her husband Albert, during which period something was effected toward the settlement of the. internal affairs of the province. On the death of Isabella without issue, Spain again assumed the government, and the Low Countries were for the next century the battle-field of Europe. The cities were taken and retaken, the territory cut up, and passed from one power to another by the treaties of Aix la Chapelle, Nimeguen, and Ryswick; and, as though these influences had not been sufficiently injurious to the country, the treaty of 1715 delivered over several of the fortresses of Belgium to her commercial rival Holland, in order to create a barrier against French ambition. Holland closed the Scheldt, and so diverted the trade of Antwerp, and in 1722 the rising commerce of Ostend was sacrificed to the Dutch. At the end of the war of succession the Low Countries passed, almost in their former integrity, to the house of Austria. The empress Maria Theresa appointed Charles, duke of Lorraine, her viceroy, and in his mild and equitable rule, the people enjoyed an interval of peace. Joseph II. shook off the bonds of the barrier treaty with the Dutch, and

compelled Holland to withdraw her army of occupation, but could not succeed in re-opening the navigation of the Scheldt. Joseph II. also addressed himself to the reform of existing abuses; but in Belgium, as in other parts of his empire, his precipitation placed a lever in the hands of those who opposed his plans, which they used successfully to excite popular discontent against his measures. The states were against him and refused to pay taxes. In 1788 the Catholic seminary of Louvain, which had been closed by the government, was reopened. This sign of weakness encouraged the discontented, who at once organized for measures of active resistance. The theories of freedom, and the schemes for a new organization of society, which were at that period rife in the French capital, spread to the Low Countries, and on Dec. 11, 1789, the discontent was made evident by a movement in Brussels against the garrison, which was forced to capitulate. Joseph and his successor Leopold made liberal offers for an adjustment of the differences and for the reestablishment of the constitution. But the liberal leaders refused all terms, and, rendered over-confident by their past success, stood out for an independent republic. Internal dissensions soon threw them into the power of the Austrians again, when Pichegru crossed the frontier under instructions from the directory, to assist the Belgians. The Austrians were rapidly driven back, and the Belgians found themselves incorporated into the French republic, their dream of independence dissipated, and eventually they became a part of the empire. On the abdication of Fontainebleau Belgium was put under the control of an Austrian governor, but on the final peace Prince William Frederic of Orange-Nassau received as the reward of his faithful adherence to the allied cause, the territory and title of king of the Netherlands. The inclinations and habits of the Belgians, which led them to a French alliance, were not consulted in this settlement; nevertheless a temperate and conciliating policy on the part of the Dutch would no doubt have smoothed away obstacles between parties whose ancient recollections might have prompted friendly relations. As it was, the differences which might have formed the strongest bonds of union in mutual support became the grounds of mutual aversion. The Dutch were engaged in commerce, the Flemings in agriculture and manufactures. The Belgians, from an uninterrupted intercourse not only during the republic and the empire, but since the days of Louis XIV., had adopted the French language, at least in the higher circles, and in all public proceedings. The Dutch were Protestant and Calvinist, the Belgians Catholic. The Dutch were only half as numerous in the new kingdom as the Belgians. The education and modes of thought of the Dutch were particularly staid and leaned to Puritanism. The Belgians in their free intercourse with France had acquired ideas and principles, which, in their liberalism and in