and assistance of persons whose experience or talents would be of great value to the State, but who cannot be induced to enter its service as paid employees. If such persons could be associated, as an advisory body, with the executive head of each department or division, the double advantage of wise council and efficient administration would be attained.

Such a solution of one great problem must be accompanied by some scheme for the proper grouping of the commissions into executive departments. No doubt a number of possible combinations might be proposed. I suggest the following scheme, which provides for all the important boards, and groups together those handling similar matters. It is based on the existing conditions in Massachusetts:

Department of Education: Public Schools; Nautical Training; Free Public Libraries; Normal Schools.

Department of Examinations: Civil Service; Dentistry; Medicine; Pharmacy; Pilots.

Department of Manufactures: Labor Statistics; Arbitration and Conciliation; Inspection of Manufactures; Lumber, Liquors, etc.

Department of Agriculture: Agriculture; Cattle; Dairy; Horticulture; Inland Fish and Game.

Department of Corporate Control: Railroads; Gas; Telephone; Street Railways; Banks; Insurance.

Public Works: Highways; Parks; Sewerage; Buildings; Land; Harbor.

Department of Charities and Corrections: Lunacy, Feeble-Minded, Blind, etc.; Charity Work; Prisons, Reformatories, etc.

Department of Public Safety: Health; Fire Marshal; Police.

By way of summary and conclusion, the whole situation may be thus put:

The people of the several States, especially those in which there is an active commercial, political, or intellectual life, are steadily insisting that their State governments shall take a more active part in affairs, shall be a positive force in creating better conditions and regulating old ones. They have been feeling their way by the establishment of commissions, charged especially with certain duties of this nature.

From the first, appointments to the paid places have to a considerable extent been made without due regard to fitness or special ability. The non-paid places have frequently secured excellent men; but because these have been unable or unwilling to give their whole time to the State, certain evils have arisen from the partial service. Gradually, however, there is arising a demand for the best men and for their whole time. When this demand becomes sufficiently strong to insure adequate compensation, permanent employment, and considerate treatment, the State will be able to secure the service it needs.

Meanwhile a movement for consolidation of the boards into departments has been growing. Eventually, departments will be formed in most States, I believe, and perhaps there will be attached to them advisory councils, made up of citizens whose wisdom and influence could not otherwise be secured. The governor will be the head of the administrative system, and responsible for its proper management. Like the President of the United States, he will have the power of removal.

How far the State will go in its supervisory, executive, and examining work, no one can predict; but the end is still far off, and I look for a great extension of State activities. Yet it is to be hoped that it will not go so far as seriously to check individual initiative nor weaken personal responsibility.

TH

THE FRIARS IN THE PHILIPPINES.

HE arguments for and against the Spanish friars, who still constitute the chief problem of the Philippines, are in general based too much on opinion and too little on knowledge. Attacks on the friars are usually characterized by glittering but unfounded generalities; while on the other hand, the defenses of the friars put forth in this country, by ecclesiastics and by laymen, both Catholic and Protestant, have in many cases been either reckless partisan diatribe or verbatim translations of ex parte statements coming from the friars in the islands (the sources almost never being given). In the present article it is proposed to state in briefest outline, with mention of the authorities, the main historical data as to the régime of the friars in the Philippines.

Magellan's voyage of discovery, 1519-21, and the subsequent voyages of Loaisa and Villalobos were undertaken for commercial, not missionary, purposes, being inspired by the hope of locating "spice islands" for Spain. Five friars (Augustinian) set out with Legaspi on the expedition from Mexico which finally resulted in permanent occupation of the Philippines. By some recent Philippine historians Legaspi is represented as the mere plaything and tool of Friar Andrés de Urdaneta, the leader of these five. Urdaneta had donned the Augustinian habit only at fifty-three, after a career as soldier in Italy and as ship-captain and explorer under Loaisa. He had a large part in planning Legaspi's expedition, and he laid out the course of the ships for New Guinea. Though forced to change the course under the instructions given by the Mexican authorities, Urdaneta and the other friars, when the Philippines were reached, still opposed a permanent settlement there. That such settlement was made, indicates well enough that Legaspi1 was no tool of the other. A month after they landed on Cebu (April 27, 1565), Urdaneta and another friar set sail for Spain, via Mexico, to report to the king,

1 He had held prominent office in Mexico, and he paid half the cost of the expedition with his property.

and never returned. Before Legaspi's death in 1572, he had founded on Cebu the first Spanish town, begun settlement of the central islands, taken Manila and established there the capital, and had seen half of Luzon brought under Spanish suzerainty.

Before we can justly estimate the character of the work done by the friars among the Filipinos, we must have a fair idea of the state of the latter at the time of the Spanish conquest. Such a fair idea it is difficult to get. The early conquerors and missionaries were little interested in the questions of modern ethnology and social science, and were scarcely fitted to answer them. Remembering how the early missionaries to Mexico labored to destroy, as works of the devil, the picture-writing, the temples and the other monuments of Aztec civilization, we should expect even less toleration from their brethren in the Philippines. The people here were of milder habits than the Aztecs; they had probably no substantial architectural monuments, and the evidences as to their state of culture were considerably fewer, and easier to destroy. Of late years, particularly in the heat of controversy from 1863 to 1898, there has been a tendency on the part of friar and pro-friar writers to depreciate the Filipinos in every way. In the loose state of knowledge about the pre-Conquest natives, it has been easy to make exaggerated charges as to savagery and degradation being prevalent before the Spaniards came. On the other hand, various Filipino zealots of the past decade or so, emulating José Rizal in his effort to give his people their just place in history, but lacking his intelligence and scholarship, have gone to ridiculous extremes in claiming for their race before the Conquest a civilization equal to that then prevailing in Europe, and charging that the friars stifled it.

Those who represent the natives as savages pure and simple before the Conquest do not quote freely from Friar Juan Plasencia, a Franciscan, whose treatise on the customs of the natives (first of its sort), in 1589, was adopted by the government for the use of its officials; nor from the Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (1609) of Doctor Antonio de Morga, a member of the first Audiencia (Supreme Court) of the Philippines. These works come nearest to giving a good contemporary view, yet are most unsatisfactory

and incomplete. They show, however, that the Filipinos of the central islands and Luzon's western coasts were somewhat past the clan stage and had a political organization under local chiefs which virtually amounted to a mild feudalism, their so-called slavery fitting better under this head; that they had a system of laws or customs, administered by the councils of old men; that their religious ideas, undeveloped and imbued with superstitions as they were, included nevertheless the recognition of a Supreme Being (the contest between Mohammedanism and Christianity among these Malays in the sixteenth century, with their readiness to accept either, is significant and illustrative); that they had a system of writing based on a phonetic alphabet, doubtless derived from the same source as that from which ours came in the dawn of history, and that some in each community could read and write; that they had long since passed the nomadic state — undoubtedly long before the Malay migrations to the Philippines.

Discarding exaggerations and matters in doubt, we know that polygamy was then practiced by Filipinos of sufficient status to maintain more than one wife; that the morality of the women left much to be desired, under the standard then obtaining, publicly at least, in European society; that gambling was by no means learned from the Spaniards, though new ways of gambling were; that the petty chiefs were frequently at strife with one another, these tribal wars not contributing to the progress or the happiness of the people; that agriculture and such arts as weaving, making pottery, etc., were in a primitive state, as indeed they still are. The natives had iron implements of warfare and various articles of other metals, but contact with the continent of Asia explains these. They were in regular intercourse with China and with Japan, Borneo and other islands some centuries before Spanish discovery. In his little-known work Chao-Yu-Kua, a Chinese geographer of the thirteenth century, describes the Philippine trade. The Chinese then obtained from the Filipinos not only such raw materials as yellow wax, cotton, pearls, tortoise-shells, betel-nuts, cocoanuts and vegetables, but also jute fabrics (prob

1 Chapter 1. Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt, the Austrian scholar, translated this chapter for José Rizal, comparing it with Dr. Hirth's English version.