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majority of all the votes must be necessary for its adoption, as when choosing a state constitution.

§ 9. But it must be kept in mind that the state governments existed first, and that the conduct of the citizens is regulated by the laws of the states. Although the general government also, in some cases, acts directly upon individual citizens, and is superior to the state governments; yet its powers extend only to certain objects, which powers are given to it by the people of the states: consequently all powers which the constitution does not grant to the general government, remain with the states and the people. (Cons. Art. 10, of Amendments.)

§ 10. The government is therefore of a mixed nature, being partly national and partly federal. Federal signifies united by a league or confederation, and implies that the members have equal power. Such was the character of the old confederation; and some of its principles have been retained in the constitution.

§ 11. Under the former, all the states were equally represented in the congress, the members of which were chosen by the state legislatures. In the senate, the states are equally represented now; and the senators are also appointed by the state legislatures. Also, in the adoption of the constitution the states had an equal voice; and so they must have in amending it. In these cases the federal principle is preserved.

§ 12. But the house of representatives, in which each state is represented in proportion to its population, is constituted upon the national principle. The election of president by presidential electors proportionally distributed among the states, is also upon the national principle. But if the election is to be made by the house of representatives, each state has an equal vote: this is according to the federal principle.

§ 13. It may perhaps he asked, Why are so many governments necessary? Why not dispense with the state governments, and let the people of the whole nation be united in one great national government, like that of a state? Such a plan would be impracticable. A single government could not make all the laws necessary for so great a nation, nor manage its numerous affairs. Hence, the interests of

large portions and of different classes of the people must be neglected. Complaints and grievances would be presented to the government from every quarter, which it could not satisfy or redress; and disorder and anarchy would soon prevail throughout the republic.

§ 14. Hence the interests and liberties of the people are most effectually secured by the division of the national territory into portions of convenient size, each having a gov. ernment of its own; and by uniting them under one general government, which shall have power to control these several governments in all needful cases, and to keep each of them within its own proper sphere.

§ 15. How highly favored the people who live under such a government as that which has been described! How dear should be the memory of those who achieved the independence of these states, and established the system of government which has conveyed to us, their descendants, the blessings of civil and religious freedom! And what a debt of gratitude is due to the Supreme Ruler of Nations, under whose protection and care a feeble, dependent, and depressed people has risen, amidst difficulties and dangers, to a state of unexampled prosperity and happiness!

§ 16. With our patriot fathers, the great object was liberty and independence. With us the question should be, How shall our liberties be preserved ? Whether the American people shall long continue to enjoy the blessings which their admirable constitution is so well adapted to secure, is to be determined by the future character and conduct of the people themselves.

§ 17. A nation, to be prosperous and happy, must be virtuous. A community may live under a free constitution, and suffer the evils of a despotism. The people may be their own oppressors. Bad laws are no less oppressive under a republican form of government than under any other. Where there is not virtue in the body politic, bad men will be elected to office, and bad laws will be made.

§ 18. On the other hand, freedom may be enjoyed in a monarchy. A wise and virtuous king will make good and wholesome laws; and his subjects may as really enjoy civil and religious liberty, as the citizens of a republic. Freedom

exists wherever the laws are good, and where they are properly administered and duly respected.

§ 19. The people must also be intelligent. In general, the freedom and happiness of a nation are in proportion to its intelligence. If people are ignorant, they cannot govern themselves. Indeed, they know not what their rights are. Besides, if they are not well informed, they are liable to be deceived by intriguing politicians, who seek power only to use it for selfish purposes.

As men in

§ 20. Hence the necessity of vigilance also. office are prone to abuse their power, they should be closely watched. They should be made to know that they are regarded as but servants of the people, and that they will be held to a strict accountability; and the people must pass impartial judgment upon their conduct, and not suffer party prejudice to blind them to the misconduct of their greatest favorites.

§ 21. If, then, we would continue a free and happy people, we must be intelligent, virtuous, and vigilant. Our liberties may be preserved; and they WILL be preserved, while the general diffusion of useful knowledge shall continue to be liberally encouraged, and the conduct of our citizens, in their social and civil relations, shall be governed by religious principle, and the sentiments of genuine, enlightened patriotism.

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.

The Constitution framed for the United States of America, by a convention of deputies from the States of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, at a session begun May 25, and ended September 17, 1787.

WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, ensure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I.

SECTION 1. All legislative power herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of representatives.

SEC. 2. The house of representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year, by the people of the several states; and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature.

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the state in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within the Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons,

including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one; Connecticut five; ; New York six ; New Jersey four; Pennsylvania eight; Delaware one; Maryland six; Virginia ten; North Carolina five; South Carolina five; Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies.

The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeach

ment.

SEC. 3. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one

vote.

Immediately after they shall have assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year; so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments, until the next meeting of the legislature which shall then fill such vacancies.

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen.

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