with one Ray Falero, a learned Portuguese astronomer, to Spain, where he made proposals for new discoveries to Cardinal Ximenes, the prime minister of Charles V. Believing with Columbus that it was possible to get to the East Indies by sailing westward, he succeeded in persuading the Spanish court that the Moluccas or Spice islands, then a much coveted possession, might be reached by a vessel taking that course, and thus be claimed by Spain in accordance with the compact between Spain and Portural that all countries discovered 180° west of the Azores should belong to Spain, while all that were discovered east of that line should be the property of Portugal. A fleet of 5 vessels of from 60 to 130 tons, manned by 234 persons, was accordingly equipped, and under the command of Magalhaens sailed from Seville, Aug. 10, 1519. Making the coast of Brazil in the middle of December, he steered southward and entered the river La Plata; but finding that it was not a strait, he proceeded again to the southward as far as a harbor on the coast of Patagonia, lat. 49, which he called Port San Julian. While wintering here he repressed with great decision, though perhaps with unnecessary cruelty, a conspiracy among the 4 other commanders of his squadron, who were Spaniards, and who hated him for being a Portuguese. Two of them were hanged, another was stabbed, and the 4th, with a priest, his accomplice, turned out of the ship and abandoned to the mercies of the Patagonians. Magalhaens quitted Port San Julian in Aug. 1520, having first taken possession of the country in the name of the king of Spain, and, proceeding still southward, on Oct. 21 entered the strait dividing the island of Terra del Fuego from the continent of America, which he called the strait of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, but which has ever since borne his name. On Nov. 28 the strait was cleared, and the fleet, now reduced by the desertion of one ship and the loss of another to 3 vessels, put forth into the vast expanse of sea beyond, to which, on account of the smoothness of its waters and the steady and gentle breezes which prevailed over it, Magalhaens gave the name of Pacific. They sailed over this untraversed ocean during the space of 3 months and 8 days, seeing no land but 2 sterile islands, and being gradally reduced to great hardships through disease and want of food. At length, on March 61521, the fleet reached a group of islands, which, on account of the thievish propensities of the natives, Magalhaens called the Ladrones, and on the 18th came in sight of Pamar, the first seen of the Philippine islands. Both groups were taken possession of in the name of the king of Spain, the latter being named by Magalhaens the archipelago of San Lazaro. According to the account of Pigafetta, the historian of the expedition, the natives of Zebu, at which the squadron arrived on April 7, and of several other islands, were converted to Christianity by the efforts of Magalhaens. Wishing to extend the field of conversion and subjuga

tion, he landed with 60 armed Spaniards upon the little island of Mactan, whose chieftain refused baptism. The islanders to the number of 1,500 opposed him with vigor, and Magalhaens, having exhausted his ammunition, commenced a retreat to his boats, in the course of which he was killed. The survivors of his party gained the ships with difficulty, and the expedition, reduced finally to a single ship and 18 men, reached Spain in Sept. 1522, under the guidance of Juan Sebastian Cano. This vessel, the Vittoria, was the first to make the circuit of the globe. In boldness of conception, in confidence in his opinions, and in patience and intrepidity, Magalhaens is justly considered to rank as an explorer next to Columbus, though necessarily at a long interval. His voyage from Spain to the Ladrones, lasting 533 days, while that of Columbus to the nearest American land was of but 70 days' duration, was far the more perilous and arduous of the two; and although on this occasion he only made half the circuit of the earth, he is fairly entitled to the credit of being the first circumnavigator, from the fact that he had previously sailed from Europe to the eastward as far as Malacca, and perhaps still further. Possessing many of the qualities necessary to govern men, he was at the same time cruel and fanatical, and his death in a useless affray was the result of a rashness which frequently mastered his judgment.

MAGDALEN, MARY. See MARY MAGDALEN. MAGDALENA, a N. department of New Granada, bounded N. and N. W. by the Caribbean sea, extending between lat. 7° 30′ and 11° 40' N. and long. 72° 30′ and 76° 5' W.; area estimated at 54,000 sq. m.; pop. 253,521. On the coast are the bays of Magdalena, Cartagena, and Morosquil. On the E. are several lateral ranges belonging to the Andes; elsewhere the surface is low. It is divided into the 4 provinces of Cartagena, Santa Marta, Rio Hacha, and Mompox.

MAGDALENA. I. A river of New Granada, which rises in the Andes near the frontier of Ecuador, in lat. 2° N., long. 76° 25' W., and after a sinuous course of 900 m. enters the Caribbean sea in lat. 11° N., long. 75° W. Its principal affluents are the Cauca, Bogota, and Sogamoso. The current is rapid and navigation difficult, but it is a route of considerable traffic, being the main channel of communication between the interior and the sea. It is navigable for small steamers to Honda, 540 m. from its mouth and 60 m. from Bogota, where further navigation is obstructed by cataracts. II. A river of Bolivia, called also Ubahy, Branco, and San Miguel. It issues from Lake Ubahy, in lat. 18° 20' S., and in its early course is called the Chiquitos. After flowing nearly N. about 500 m. it falls into the Guapore, in lat. 12° 20′ S., long. 65° 5' W.

MAGDEBURG, a Prussian fortress, capital of the Prussian province of Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 894 m. by railway S. W. from Berlin, 78 m. N. N. W. from Leipsic, and 300

m. N. W. from Cologne; pop. in 1858 of the town proper, consisting of the Altstadt, Stern, Citadelle, and Friedrichsstadt, 58,694, exclusive of 4,000 troops; and including the two suburbs Neustadt and Sudenburg, 76,116. The Altstadt, or the principal part of the fortification, extends along the river, and comprises 11 bastions. South of the Altstadt is the Sternschanze or star bastion, outside the Sudenburg gate, which is considered one of the strongest points. The two are connected by Fort Scharnhorst; and on an island of the Elbe, opposite the Altstadt, and united to it by a bridge, is the citadel, which serves also as a state prison, and in which Lafayette and Carnot were confined. Another bridge leads to the Friedrichsstadt or Thurmschanze (tower bastion), on the opposite or right bank of the river. The most remarkable of the 10 Protestant churches of Magdeburg is the cathedral, one of the finest Gothic monuments in N. Germany, surmounted by two towers about 350 feet high, with a nave 110 feet high, a pulpit of alabaster, now sadly mutilated, 45 smaller altars, with a great variety and beauty in the Romanesque capitals and tympana, and containing the bronze statue of Archbishop Ernest, the tomb of its founder, the emperor Otho the Great, and relics of Gen. Tilly. In St. Sebastian's church is the grave of Otto von Guericke, the inventor of the air pump. The equestrian monument of the emperor Otho in the Alte Markt, opposite the town hall, erected after his death at the end of the 10th century, is the oldest in the town. Luther once spent a year at the Franciscan school of Magdeburg, supporting himself by singing in the streets. Magdeburg is connected by steamers with Hamburg, and by railways with the principal towns of Europe. A canal commencing 20 m. below the town unites the Elbe with the Havel. The principal manufactures are beet root sugar and chemical products.-Magdeburg is of very ancient origin, and had the privileges of a town in the time of Charlemagne. A Benedictine convent was established there in 937 by Otho the Great, and an archbishopric in 967, which was raised by Pope John XIII. to the rank of primate of Germany. On account of its being among the first to embrace the reformation, the town was excommunicated, and was taken by the elector Maurice of Saxony in 1551 after a protracted siege. During the 30 years' war Magdeburg was subjected to great trials. It resisted the army of Wallenstein for 7 months, but was taken by the cruel Tilly in May, 1631, who carried it by assault and massacred 30,000 of the inhabitants with out distinction of age or sex, reducing the town to ashes, excepting the cathedral and about 140 houses. In the despatch in which he announced the capture he wrote: "Since the destruction of Jerusalem and Troy such a victory has not been." Upon the house of the commandant, whom he beheaded, may be still read the words: "Remember the 10th of May, 1631." By the peace of Westphalia of 1648, the archbishopric of Magdeburg was allotted to the house of

Brandenburg. In 1806 the fortress, though garrisoned by a large force, was basely surrendered to the French by Gen. Kleist after 14 days' siege. The last siege was the obstinate one which it endured in 1813-'14.

MAGELLAN, or MAGALHAENS, a strait separating the continent of South America from the island of Terra del Fuego. Its entrance on the E. is between Cape de las Virgenes on the mainland, lat. 52° 18′ S., and Cape Espiritu Santo on the largest island, lat. 52° 42' S., being 30 m. in breadth. On the W. the entrance is between Cape Victory, lat. 52° 16' S., and Cape de los Pilares, lat. 52° 46′ S., 33 m. wide. Its total length is about 300 m., extending between long. 68° 20′ and 75° W. The strait varies greatly in width, contracting at Cape Orange to 14 m. The coasts are high and bold, rising to an elevation occasionally of 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and the navigation is difficult. It was discovered by the Portuguese navigator Fernando Magalhaens in 1520.

MAGENDIE, FRANÇOIS, a French physician and physiologist, born in Bordeaux, Oct. 15, 1783, died Oct. 8, 1855. He was removed at an early age to Paris, and became the pupil of the celebrated surgeon Boyer. At 20 years of age he was appointed successively aide d'anatomie in the faculty of medicine, and demonstrator. He, however, subsequently devoted himself principally to the practice of medicine, was in 1819 elected a member of the academy of sciences, and in 1831 succeeded Recamier in the chair of anatomy in the college of France, which he retained until his death. As an experimenter in physiology he occupied a high position, and his experiments on living animals were at one time so numerous and involved so much suffering to the animals, that the French government deemed it necessary to interfere. The results obtained, however, were of great importance, if they do not absolve him from the charge of cruelty. Among them may be named an original demonstration that the two roots of the spinal nerves are devoted to two separate functions; that the veins are organs of absorption; that strychnine acts upon the spinal cord and contracts by tetanic spasm the nerves of respiration, thus inducing asphyxia; that food destitute of nitrogen is not nutritious; and that prussic acid is a valuable remedy in certain forms of cough arising from irritation in the lungs. By means of numerous experimental researches upon the functions of the brain, its parts and nerves, he also greatly aided others in arriving at correct conclusions respecting these parts of the physical economy. He was a prolific author of medical works, the most important of which are: Formulaire pour la préparation et emploi de plusieurs nouveaux médicaments (1821), containing an account of the effects of certain plants then recently introduced into the materia medica, and which has been translated into all the languages of Europe; Précis élémentaire de physiologie (1816-'17), for many years an important manual for stu

dents; Leçons sur les phénomènes physiques de la vie (1836-42); Leçons sur les fonctions et les maladies du système nerveux (1839); and Leçons sur le song (1839). He was also a contributor to the Encyclopédie des gens du monde, and to several medical dictionaries.

MAGENTA, a town of Lombardy, situated about 5 m. from the E. (left) bank of the Ticino, and 15 m. W. from Milan, with which city it communicates by railway and canal; pop. about 6,000. It is the first stage on the road from Novara to Milan, being nearly equidistant from the two places. On June 4, 1859, a great battle was fought here between the allied French and Sardinians, under the emperor Napoleon III. and King Victor Emanuel, and the Austrians commanded by Count Gyulai. The French assembled at Alessandria, having first deceived the Austrians by a march toward the E. in the direction of Piacenza, suddenly crossed the Po at Casale (May 31), and, while the Sardinians menaced the enemy's position at Mortara, midway between the Po and Ticino, moved toward the N., occupied Novara, and threw 3 bridges across the Ticino at Turbigo, about 8 m. above Magenta. The Austrians thereupon withdrew across the river into the Lombard territory and fortified the bridge of Buffalora, over which passes the road from Novara through Magenta to Milan; but on June 2 they were compelled to retire before a French corps under Gen. Espinasse, after an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the bridge. On the 4th McMahon's corps, followed by a division of the imperial guard and a division of the Sardinian army, having crossed at Turbigo, marched along the left bank toward Magenta, while the emperor in person advanced with the grenadier division of the imperial guard to occupy the bridge of Buffalora, leaving orders for Canrobert to follow. The Latter was delayed, but the grenadiers began the contest unassisted at noon, and after 2 hours' desperate fighting captured the position and took possession of the heights on the canal, in the face of an Austrian force estimated by the French at 125,000. Gyulai at once despatched Baron Reischach to retake the bridge, but after a conflict of 2 hours more, in which it was 7 times taken and lost, the arrival of Canrobert, Renault de St. Jean d'Angély, Neil, and Vinoy, turned the scale in favor of the French, though not until great loss had been suffered on both sides. The 3d Austrian army corps was ordered up from Abbiate Grasso on the S., and assailed the French flank with much spirit, but was finally compelled to fall back upon Robecco. In the mean time McMahon's advance from Turbigo had been several times checked by the enemy, who on evacuating Buffalora concentrated the principal part of their force between him and Magenta. A large detachment at tempted to separate the divisions of La MotteRage and Espinasse, but was finally driven back by the voltigeurs of the guard under Gen. Canon, while the 45th regiment of the line made a heroic and successful attack upon a farin

house defended by 2 Hungarian regiments, and Gen. Auger planted a battery of 40 guns on the railway, from which he poured a tremendous fire upon the Austrians in flank. On reaching the town of Magenta, McMahon found it occupied by 7,000 of the enemy under Clam-Gallas, and the 2d army corps under Prince Liechtenstein. The combat here was terrible. Both sides felt Magenta to be the key of the position, and the attack and defence were conducted with equal bravery and determination. The French took it house by house, losing by their own account 1,500 men, but making 5,000 prisoners and placing 10,000 Austrians hors du combat. At 83 P. M. Gyulai ordered a general retreat, leaving 4 guns in possession of the French. His official report gave his own loss at 9,713 killed, wounded, and missing, and that of the enemy at 6,000 or 7,000 killed and wounded. The French accounts acknowledge a loss of 4,957, and estimate that of Gyulai at 20,000, including 7,000 prisoners. The French generals Espinasse and Clerc were among the killed. The immediate results of the battle were the evacuation of Milan by the Austrians and its occupation by the allies. McMahon and St. Jean d'Angély were rewarded with the batons of marshals of France, and the former was also created duke of Magenta.

MAGGIORE, LAKE. See LAGo Maggiore. MAGI, the priestly caste of the ancient Persians. It has generally been held that they were a Median race, and that the revolution which gave them their supremacy was a Median outbreak. It is, however, believed by Rawlinson that Magism was the old Scythic religion, which maintained itself in Persia after the Aryan conquest, and grew in power and influence despite the frowns of the court until Gomates, a Magus, was raised to the throne as successor of Cambyses. He was speedily overthrown and slain by Darius Hystaspes, and the Aryan religion was restored in triumph over Magism. Zoroaster was the reformer of Magism, which became the later Persian religion. The wisdom of the Magi caused a secret knowledge of religion and philosophy to be ascribed to them.

MAGIC, as explained by its adepts, the traditional science of the secrets of nature, embracing all knowledge, and constituting the perfection of philosophy; also the art of exercising preterhuman powers by means of occult virtues and spiritual agencies. Its highest professors have always claimed that it is chiefly esoteric, a sanctum regnum, fit only for kings and priests; and that to become master of its secrets requires superior intelligence enlightened by the severest study, an audacity which no peril can daunt, a will which no resistance can bend, and a discretion, devotion, and habitual silence undisturbed by the temptations of the world. They affirm that the reason, imagination, and will of man are instruments of incalculable power, and that some of their resources are known only to the magician; and they refer to Hermes Trismegistus, Osiris, Orpheus, Apollonius of Tyana, and

others, as persons of extraordinary attainments in magical arts, who have consequently been adored and invoked as gods after their death. Paracelsus inveighs against such as rank true magicians with conjurers, necromancers, and witches, "those grand impostors who violently intrude themselves into magic, as if swine should enter into a fair and delicate garden." Cornelius Agrippa reckoned 5 different kinds of magic. These, however, may be reduced to 2, the white or divine and the black or infernal magic. In the former, the devil devotes himself to the magician; in the latter, the magician devotes himself to the devil. The sorcerer, or practiser of the black art, differs from the true magician as the charlatan from the adept. The arts of magic are founded upon a pretended system of the universe, and have their root in astrology. Beside the 4 elements, fire, air, earth, and water, each with diverse potential characteristics, a 5th essential and superior element is introduced, variously called the astral light, the soul of the world, and the primum mobile, which is the grand arcanum of transcendental magic, the Tetragram of the Hebrews, the Azoth of the alchemists, the Thot of the gypsies, and the Tarot of the cabalists. By this element, which abounds in the celestial bodies and descends in the rays of the stars, every occult property is conveyed into herbs, stones, metals, and minerals, making them solary, lunary, jovial, saturnine, mercurial, &c., according to the planetary influences. Every thing human is represented in it, according to the Platonic notion, as Agrippa maintains, that every thing below has a celestial pattern. In it thoughts are realized, and images of past persons and things preserved, so that spectres may be evoked from it and the mysteries of necromancy accomplished. It is thus because they are merely spectral that spirits are said never to cast shadows. The signs printed in it are reproduced on all bodies, men having the signs of their star on their brow and in their hands, by which their destiny may be read from the beginning. Hence the astral cabalistic alphabet of Paracelsus and Gaffarel. Separated and extracted from matter, it is the philosopher's stone and the elixir of youth. To have command of this element, to direct its currents and to discern its moving panorama, is the highest attainment and the incommunicable secret of the magician. To reveal it is to lose it; to impart it even to a disciple is to abdicate in his favor. According to Eliphas Levi, one of the most erudite recent writers in illustration and defence of magic, the famous prophetic dinner related by La Harpe, at which Cazotte before the outbreak of the French revolution foretold to his listeners its horrors and precisely their own mode of execution, has never been correctly understood. According to him, all the men present at the dinner, except La Harpe, had been initiated into societies of magic and illuminism, and had profaned the mysteries. Cazotte had advanced further than they in the scale of initiation, had a higher au

thority, and therefore in condemning them to the penalty of death was pronouncing their sentence rather than predicting their future. The powerful association only availed itself of the course of events to rigorously execute the sentence. A fundamental principle of magical science is the universal mutual relation of every thing in nature, the necessary chain of all effects and all causes, the slightest event being often momentous with the greatest consequences. Thus, from occult relations, Cæsar is said to have been assassinated because he blushed at being bald; Napoleon to have died on St. Helena because he liked the poems of Ossian; and Louis Philippe to have been dethroned because he possessed an umbrella. These hidden connections are symbolized in magical numbers and words, and are revealed by fantastic but scrupulous ceremonies.-The ultimate magical force, however, is the will; and ceremonies, vestments, perfumes, numbers, written characters, and symbols are useful only as means of educating and concentrating the will. All the mysteries of magic, all occult gnostical symbols, all the cabalistic keys of prophecy, are summed up in the pentagram or flamboyant 5-pointed star, the sign of the microcosm and of intellectual autocracy, and the most powerful magical instrument. This mysterious figure must be consecrated by the 4 elements, breathed upon, sprinkled with water, and dried in the smoke of precious perfumes; and then the names of great spirits, as Gabriel, Raphael, Oriphiel, and the letters of the sacred tetragram and other cabalistical words, are whispered to it, and are fantastically inscribed upon it. In magical ceremonies, which must always be performed with minute exactness, it is placed on the altar of incense under the tripod of invocation. The operator should also wear it on his person together with the figure of the macrocosm, a star of 6 rays, composed of two triangles crossed and interlaced. In various positions it invokes good or bad spirits, and expels, retains, or captures them. Occult qualities are due to the agency of elemental spirit. The magician can become their master only by surpassing them in courage in their own elements. The terrors of initiation into ancient mysteries and mediaval magical rites were designed to test and prove the strength and daring of the candidate. The man who has demonstrated his fearlessness amid conflagration, shipwreck, tempest, and darkness, terrifies the salamanders, undines, gnomes, and sylphs into obedience, and can then evoke them from the fire, water, earth, and air. There are divers modes of divination by the 4 elementary substances, called respectively pyromancy, hydromancy, geomancy, and aeromancy. The magician should be impassible, sober, chaste, disinterested, inaccessible to prejudice and terror, and without physical defect. An impassioned ecstasy may sometimes have the same power as this absolute intellectual superiority, but is not to be depended on. He should not live exclusively in his laboratory, with his

Athanor, elixirs, and crucibles. The intense mental concentration required by every magical operation should be followed by a period of repose. It is claimed that a traditional key to insical arts has been preserved from the time of Solomon, its use being permitted only to the highest priests and to the élite of the initiated. This key is a hieroglyphical and numeral alphabet, expressing by characters and numbers a series of universal and absolute ideas. It has 4 symbols bound together by 12 figures, representing the 4 great genii of the 4 cardinal points united by the 12 signs of the zodiac. The symbols of this key with all their analogies explain all mysteries, the ancient magic, the cabala, and the 7 magical planetary squares of Agrippa and Paracelsus. To its 24 letters correspond the 22 keys of the cabalistic Tarot, explained by Court de Gébelin, and known to the Rosicrucians and the Martinists. Thus revealed, the Tarot is a veritable oracle, and of itself would furnish a universal science and an exhaustless eloquence. It was the great secret of Raymond Lully. The celebrated word abracadabra formed the magical triangle of pagan theosophers, to which extraordinary virtues were attributed. It symbolizes the whole magical science of the ancient world. The trident of Paracelsus was believed by him to have all the virtues which the cabala attributed to words, and which the hierophants of Alexandria ascribed to the abracadabra. A complete knowledge and mastery of nature is the transcendant claim of magic. To know things secret and future, to command the elemental spirits, to heal the sick, to provide charms and talismans which shall mysteriously sway the will of others, render one's self invulnerable, and raise tempests, to constrain the devil into service, to evoke the dead, to possess the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life, are the usual objects of magical arts. The highest success can be attained only by the most disinterested purposes and the most unswerving devotion. Thus those who have been believed to have possessed the secret of making guld, as Nicholas Flamel, passed lives of poverty and privation, while they made princely distribations of wealth.-Though magic has generally ceased to be an object of serious attention, being regarded by enlightened nations as a chimerical science, yet it has had a history which links it on the one hand with the highest themes of symbolism, theosophy, and early science, as well as on the other with the ridiculous or tragical delusions of the many forms of demonomaria. It played an important part in the religious doctrine and ritual of the ancient Persians, and magical arts have always remained in vogue and authority almost throughout the East. The Greeks borrowed the name from the Chaldeans, and applied it to all divinations and thaumaturgy. Schelling in his work on the divinities of Samothrace suggests that "in the Greek mythology the ruins of a superior intelligence and even of a perfect system were to be found, which would reach far beyond the

horizon which the most ancient written records present to us." He adds that portions of the same system may be discovered in the Jewish cabala. The Alexandrian philosophy, which mingled the ideas of the East and the West, attached importance to magic, under the influence of which theurgy becaine a prominent part of the declining pagan doctrine. The Mosaic law had recognized and proscribed magical arts, and Christianity renewed the interdiction, ascribing its marvels to malignant spirits. Magic in connection with fantastic Neo-Platonic theories was the last remnant of paganism, and was practised in secret. To its long and hidden culture under proscription, the medieval conception of the sabbat, or midnight assembly of witches, has been attributed. Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and oriental ideas all combine in the Christian history of magic. To the medieval mind, Aristotle, Virgil, Solomon, and Alexander the Great were alike magicians and enchanters. Gerbert, who was afterward Pope Sylvester II., scarcely escaped condemnation for sorcery. Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Raymond Lully, and Pico della Mirandola studied the cabala and prosecuted original inquiries. Faust enjoyed unrivalled celebrity in Germany. Near the time of the renaissance appeared the Rosicrucian theory of sylphs, gnomes, undines, and salamanders, and their various powers. The classical scholar Reuchlin devoted himself with great ardor to the investigation of the cabala, embodying the result in his works De Verbo Mirifico and De Arte Cabbalistica. Buxtorf, Schickard, Hottinger, Athanasius Kircher, and Knorr von Rosenroth followed in his footsteps; the Cabbala Denudata of the last is of especial merit. The works of Trithemius, Cornelius Agrippa, Paracelsus, and Van Helmont developed the subject, and the writings of Jacob Böhme, St. Martin, and Henry More are important with reference to it. Cardan was believed to be one of the most learned and successful practitioners, though according to some accounts he committed suicide in order not to give the lie to his horoscope, which he had prepared with great care. Though the legitimacy of magic was disputed, its reality as an art and a science was scarcely doubted from the 15th to the 18th century. It has still in Europe a few learned and respectable professors and adepts, while throughout the Mohammedan and pagan world its reality is almost universally admitted, and its professors are still numerous.-For the discipline and ceremonies of the art, as now maintained, see Eliphas Levi, Dogme et rituel de la haute magie (2 vols., Paris, 1856). To attain the science, according to this work, not only a severe intellectual and moral training, but also a theosophical genius and a wide erudition, are essential. For various information on the subject, see Horst, Von der alten und neuen Magie Ursprung, Idee, Umfang und Geschichte (Mentz, 1820); Grasse, Bibliotheca Magica et Pneumatica (Leipsic, 1843); and Ennemoser, Geschichte der Magie (2d ed., Leipsic, 1844;