liquid, or a vowel, the s of the genitive is sounded like z ; as, a STAG's horns, a MAN's head, a HERO's courage.]

(17) When the plural form of a noun does not end in s, the genitive, or possessive case plural is formed, in the same manner as the genitive case singular, by adding in the written language s, preceded by an apostrophe to the plural form; as, men, genitive men's, brethren, genitive brethren's, &c. (18) But when the plural ends, as it generally does, in s, another s could not be added without giving an additional syllable to the word in pronunciation. (19) This is never done for the purpose of forming a plural genitive. (20) When the plural subject noun (or nominative case, as it is commonly called) ends in s, the genitive plural agrees with it in sound, and in the spoken language can be distinguished from it by the sense alone. (21) In the written language the genitive plural is distinguished from the nominative plural by an apostrophe (') placed after the final s of the nominative; as, On EAGLES' wings, The FRIENDS' meeting house; equivalent to, On the wings of eagles, The meeting house of the Friends.

[(22) The same method of distinguishing the genitive singular, is also adopted in the written language, when the singular form of the noun ends in ss; as, For righteousness' sake. (23) The apostrophe is also placed after some other words ending in an 8 sound, to indicate the genitive; as, For conscience' sake.*

(24) In the spoken language, we sometimes form the genitive of singular nouns (generally proper names) ending in an s sound, by adding the syllable es; as James' kite, pronounced Jamezez kite.

* We suspect that the s in the next word, sake, has its influence here. We know no example, except this, of a genitive form of conscience. Peace, in the genitive, ought, we presume, to be spelled peace's, and should certainly be pronounced peacez-For peace' or peace's sake.

(17) How is the genitive plural formed, when the plural subject form does not end in 8 ? (18) What would be the effect of adding an 's when the subject form ends in &? (19) Is this ever in fact done to form a plural genitive? (20) What is the genitive plural form in the spoken language when the nominative plural ends in 8 (21) How is it distinguished from the nominative in the written language? Give the examples.

[(22) Repeat the observation in reference to singular nouns ending in 88. (28) Do any singular words besides those in es form the genitive in the same way?

(24) What is said of some singular nouns taking the syllable ez in their genitive in the

(25) Perhaps such forms should be spelled, as they are pronounced, with es added to the nominative, or rather, with 's, to distinguish them from plural forms; as James's, Thomas's, Douglas's. (26) Some authors add the 's to such nouns-some the apostrophe alone. (27) To one noun ending in ss, we find the 's sometimes added—namely, witness; thus, The WITNESS's veracity.]

In proper names ending in &, the genitive case is very generally the same with the nominative in the spoken language. This applies particularly to Greek and Latin proper names. In the written language an apostrophe is placed after the 8, but in speaking, the genitive is not distinguished from the nominative. Examples, "Achilles' wrath; "Atreus' royal line;" "Olympus' lofty tops;" "Thetis' godlike son;" "Pirithous' fame." "Briscis' charms," &c. This form of expression is generally avoided in prose, and the Norman construction adopted; thus, The wrath of Achilles, &c.

We have examples of similarly formed genitives of Scripture proper names; as, “ Jesus' sake;" "Moses' law." These names in the early editions of the authorised version, as well as in the versions of Tyndale, Cranmer, and that of Geneva, are printed without the apostrophe, and were undoubtedly pronounced in the same manner as the nominative; and, we believe, they are, generally, so pronounced at the present day. The use of the apostrophe, in marking genitives, was introduced, as we shall again have occasion to observe, much later than the age of the translators.

(28) REMARK.-Let the learner carefully remember, that in writing genitive or possessive cases, the mark called apostrophe (') is an essential part of the modern spelling. To omit it, is as much an error in orthography, as to omit a letter in a word.

$74. DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.-(1) We now propose to exhibit what is called the declension of nouns; that is, the regular arrangement of their cases of the singular and plural forms. (2) The declension of nouns (leaving out of view the pronouns), if we admit only the cases which possess distinct forms, would be as follows:

spoken language? (25) How should such genitives perhaps be written? (26) Are authors agreed in this matter? (27) What is said of the noun witness ?]

(28) Repeat the remark about spelling.

$74. (1) What is meant by the declension of a noun? (2) Decline the nouns man and friend, as given above, spelling them afterwards, including the apostrophe as part of the spelling.

(3) We shall, however, for reasons which will appear hereafter, exhibit the declensions so as to accord with the structure of the ancient Anglo-Saxon, and the sister languages of the north of Europe, and substantially with the Greek and Latin. (4) In doing this we add two cases to those already enumerated, but which in form (save in the class of pronouns) are always the same with the nominative. (5) One of these we call, following the commonly received names, the accusative or objective case. (6) The last is the name generally given to this case by English grammarians, because its chief function is to express the passive OBJECT of an active verb. (7) The second additional case we call also by the old name, the Dative Case. This case is sometimes used to express what is called the personal object of a verb, the same which is more generally expressed by the noun preceded by the particle to.

(8) We might add a fifth case, and so conform more completely to the ancient models of declension, calling it the vocative. (9) A noun is said to be in the vocative or case of address, when it is used in calling upon that which the noun represents. (10) In the ancient languages, the noun thus employed sometimes differed in form from the nominative. (11) The subject form, when convenient, was abbreviated, as we still sometimes abbreviate the names of our familiar friends, in calling them. (12) Thus Thomas becomes Tom, James Jem, William Will, &c.

(13) But as the noun used in address does not enter into the structure of propositions, serves simply in continuous speech as the means of calling the attention of the party addressed, and gives no occupation to the student of grammatical analysis, we omit it in the model of declension.*

*Whether there are some dozen cases, or three cases, or two cases, or only one case, depends on the definition which we choose to give to the term case. This term is derived from a Latin word, which means to fall. Casus, the Latin of case, means a falling. The subject noun, in its singular

(3) How do we propose to exhibit the declensions? (4) What additional cases are introduced? (5) What is one of these cases called? (6) Why is it called the objective case? (7) What is the second additional case called, and what is its function?

(8) What other case might be added? (9) What is the function of a vocative case? (10) What is said of the form of this case in the ancient languages? (11) Repeat the remark in reference to the ancient forms of the vocative. (12) Give examples.

(13) What reason is given for omitting the vocative in our model of declension? (14) Decline brother, afterwards spelling and noting the place of the apostrophe.

We subjoin the Declension of the Personal Pronouns. (15) It will be seen that most of these have a form for the accusative and dative, distinct from the form of the nominative. (16) It will

and plural forms, appears to have been considered (rather whimsically, perhaps) by the old grammarians as the upright or straight form—the standard form-(in Latin casus rectus) from which the other case forms were fallings off, or declinations. (Hence the term declension.) According to this view, the subject noun cannot properly be called a case. Yet a case it has been called by the ancient grammarians themselves, and we still currently call it the nominative case. If we use the term case strictly, as meaning a falling off from the form of the subject noun, or, to speak more in accordance with modern conceptions, a change of the form of the noun, we have only one case in English nouns, namely, the possessive, or genitive case. We have, however, according to this view, two cases in some of the pronouns. If we consider the noun, when used to complete a verb (as shall be shown hereafter), and when it is connected to another word by a preposition, as a distinct case, and call the subject noun the nominative, we shall have three cases of nouns. This is the view of the subject generally taken by English grammarians. This third case-the noun used after verbs and prepositions -they call the objective or accusative case.

Another principle on which to determine the number of cases, is to recognise every distinct function which a noun performs in construction, independently, without the help of other words, as a distinct case. On this principle, we shall have a dative case, at least, in addition to the three already enumerated. We have adopted this principle of determining the number of cases, so far as to admit a dative. It may be doubted whether, in consistency, we ought not to admit a case to express time, measure, &c., and a distinction between the functions of object direct of a verb, and the noun which follows a preposition. If we admit every relation in which a noun may stand to another noun, verb, or adjective, either with or without the aid of a preposition, we shall have, as we said in the beginning of this note, some dozen cases.

(15) What remark in reference to the accusative and dative forms of the personal pronouns? (16) Repeat remark in reference to the formation of the cases of pronouns.

also be seen that neither the possessive form nor the accusative form of these pronouns is in most cases regularly derived from the nominative.

* Some give a double form of the genitive or possessive cases of all these pronouns except He and It. Thus, My, or mine; thy, or thine; her, or hers; our, or ours; your, or yours; their, or theirs. My, thy, her, our, your, their, we treat as determinative adjectives. (See Additional Observations on the Personal Pronouns, § 155.) The learner will remark, that no apostrophe is used in writing ours, yours, hers, its, theirs.

You has not only usurped the place of thou, in addressing an individual, but also the place of ye, in addressing a number of individuals. At one period of our language, ye appears to have been used exclusively as the form for the nominative plural (or plural subject noun) of the second person. Many instances may be found in which ye is used as an accusative, both after verbs and prepositions: for example-"The more shame for ye-holy men I thought ye.”—Shak. This usage may have arisen from a softened or slovenly pronunciation of you, in conversation. It is still common enough to hear persons of good education say, Thank ye, instead of, Thank you; though such forms are banished from the written language.

You, was originally the proper accusative form of the second person plural, and used only for the purpose of modification, and not as subject noun. Now it performs the functions of nominative, accusative, and dative, both singular and plural. The possessives your and yours, whether we regard

(17) Decline separately each of the personal pronouns.