degrees of intensity; one cold day is more intensely cold than another. This higher intensity we express briefly by adding to the adjective the termination ER. This day, we say, is COLDER than yesterday. Again, we may wish to assert of a number of days. (more than two) that some one was the most intensely cold. This we do by applying to the adjective cold the termination EST, and using it with this inflection to complete the noun day. Thus, This is the COLDEST day of the week; The day before yesterday was COLD, yesterday was COLDER, but this day is the COLDEST of the three. Here we have the quality cold expressed in three different degrees of intensity, each distinguished by a different form of the adjective, Cold, colder, coldest.

(7) These forms, including the original adjective, are called the three degrees of comparison. Grammarians have given each a distinct name. (8) The original adjective they have named the positive degree, the form in ER the comparative, and the form in EST the superlative degree.

(9) These modifications of the form of the adjective are generally, as in the case of the word cold, effected by adding the syllable ER to the positive (or original form of the adjective) for the comparative degree, and the syllable EST for the superlative. (10) When in the written language the adjective happens to end in e mute, r alone is added to form the comparative and st to form the superlative; as, sure, surer, surest. (11) In the spoken language, the sounds represented by ER and EST are always added to the original adjective as it is at present pronounced. In other words, a syllable is always added to the adjective to form the comparative and superlative degrees.

thoughts. Still we cannot hope to attain these advantages, and to use with correctness the languages which possess them, without submitting to much repulsive labor.

(7) What name have grammarians given to these forms intended to express qualities in different degrees of intensity? (8) What names have been given to each of these distinct forms of the adjective?

(9) How are the comparatives and superlatives of adjectives formed? (10) How are they formed in the written language when the adjective ends in e mate? (11) What sounds or syllables are always added in the spoken language?

(12) We may observe here that we have another way in English of expressing comparison, namely, employing the adverbs more and most before the adjective to express the comparative and superlative degrees respectively; as, amiable, more amiable, most amiable. This comes under the adverbial modification of the adjective already considered.

(13) Words consisting of one syllable are usually compared (as the grammarians call it) by adding to them the syllables er and est, by which they become words of two syllables. (14) A few words of two syllables-especially those which end in an accented syllable are sometimes compared in the same way; as, severe, severer, severest; divine, diviner, divinest.

(15) With all adjectives of more than two syllables, and with most adjectives containing two syllables, we employ more and most for the purpose of expressing a higher degree of intensity. (16) More and most may be employed for this purpose with all adjectives which admit of comparison, and are to be employed whenever the use of the inflected form would produce any harshness of sound. (17) But except where harshness is to be avoided or some rhetorical purpose to be served, the inflected form of monosyllables is generally preferred as more brief and more forcible.

(18) When we wish to express the existence of a quality in an object in a high degree without comparison-without reference to the degree in which other objects possess the same quality-we generally employ the adverb very or more than usually, &c.; as, A very high mountain. (19) Sometimes we express the same thing, or nearly the same thing, by the superlative form; as, The GREATEST difficulties are overcome by perseverance. This differs little from VERY GREAT difficulties are overcome, &c. It is more spirited, but

(12) Describe another way of expressing comparison in English.

(13) How are words of one syllable usually compared

(14) Are any words of two syllables compared in the same way? If any, what kind of words?

(15) With what classes of adjectives are more and most always employed for the purpose of expressing increased intensity? (16) When are these words to be employed with adjectives even of one syllable for the same purpose? (17) In what sort of words, and with what exceptions, is the inflected form preferred?

(18) How do we express intensity without direct comparison? (19) Is the same thing sometimes done by means of the superlative inflection? Illustrate by an example.

still implies little, if any comparison.* (20) Grammarians have called such expressions as, A very high mountain the superlative absolute, while the form employed when reference is expressed or implied to other objects possessing the same quality, is called the superlative

relative.

(21) Descending comparison, or diminution of the intensity of a quality expressed by an adjective is denoted by the adverbs less and least; as, less studious, least studious; or sometimes by adding to the adjective the termination ISH; as, whitish, blackish, &c.

(22) The comparison of equality is always expressed by means of additional words; as, That man is as learned as his brother, (23) In this, and, indeed, in every case of comparison formally stated, there is a modifying proposition employed-a species of complement or modification which remains to be treated hereafter.

be

* Perhaps the use of the superlative in this way in our language may considered as merely exaggeration, or a rhetorical contrivance adopted for the purpose of imparting force and sprightliness to style. To represent any object as possessing an attribute in the highest degree of all the objects of its class is more forcible than to represent it as simply possessing it in a very high degree. The superlative absolute is tame when compared with the other form. It is only however when the adjective is used attributively, or as the complement of a noun, that the superlative comparative can be thus substituted in English for the superlative absolute. We do not, as far as we know, employ the superlative comparative, (that is, the form made with st or its equivalent the adjective modified by the adverb most,) as complementary of the verb except when we intend comparison.

In some languages the same form is very frequently used to express both the superlative comparative and the superlative absolute; and that when the adjective serves to complete a verb as well as when it completes a noun. Thus in Latin, mons altissimus means, when reference is made to other mountains, the highest mountain; or, when no such reference is intended, a very high mountain. Mons est altissimus may also be used to assert that a mountain is very high. Even the comparative form is used, though less frequently, in the same way; as, "Si tibi quædam videbuntur obscuriora." "Obscuriora" here means obscure beyond the ordinary degree-more than commonly

obscure.

(20) By what name have grammarians distinguished this from direct comparison? (21) How is descending comparison, or diminution of intensity expressed? Give examples.

(22) What is said of the comparison of equality? (23) What is necessary in all cases when a comparison is formally stated?

(24) A few cases occur in which the different degrees of the same quality are represented by words entirely distinct in form; and a few other cases occur in which there is some irregularity in the formation of the comparative and superlative. The chief irregularities of both kinds are exhibited in the following table.

(26) EXPLANATION.-Much is used in speaking of quantity, many, in speaking of number; nearest is used in reference to place, next, in reference to time; the forms later and latest are used in speaking of time, latter and last, in speaking of order; older and oldest are the forms generally employed at present, elder and eldest are more ancient forms, and are now less frequently employed. Further and furthest are perhaps formed from fore, which we have in the word foremost, and not from far. The meanings, as well as the derivation, of these forms were likely once different-further meaning more in front; farther, more distant. But in modern usage, farther, on account of its softer sound, has nearly superseded the harsher word, further, the difference of their signification not being so great as to preclude this substitution.*

*It is a curious fact that in the best known ancient and modern languages the adjectives irregular in comparison are usually words of similar signification. Thus the words which denote the same qualities with our

(24) Repeat the remark in reference to irregular comparison.

(25) Repeat the table of irregular forms.

(26) Repeat the remarks in explanation of the use of the irregular forms.

[(27) There is a class of superlatives ending in most; as, for example, foremost, mentioned above, hindmost, upmost, utmost, &c., about the formation of which the grammarians are not yet agreed. The most

words good and bad are irregularly compared in Greek, Latin and all its modern progeny, Italian, Spanish, French, &c., and also in Anglo-Saxon, German (as regards gut, good,) and other Teutonic dialects. These irregularities have generally come down from the remotest periods to which languages can be traced, and have been transmitted from the ancient languages to the dialects derived from them. Thus, from the comparative melior (better) in Latin are derived the words of similar signification in all the modern languages descended from the Latin, in Italian, French, &c. The irregularity of good, better, best comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon, and to this and the other Teutonic dialects, likely, from some remote common parent-language.

That the adjectives expressive of these particular qualities are irregular in so many apparently independent languages, is, perhaps, to be accounted for from the fact that these are the very words of the class of comparatives and superlatives which must have been earliest employed and most frequently employed in the dialects to which they respectively belong. Words to express the qualities good and bad in different degrees of intensity becoming very early necessary in the everyday intercourse of life, may have been received into current use and have obtained fixed and immovable possession as articulate signs, long before any general law for the formation of comparatives and superlatives came to be recognised in language. In other words, terms expressive of the meaning of better and worse may have been established immovably in many languages anterior to the use of inflection to express comparison.

Again, words very frequently used in the intercourse of life, especially words used much by the illiterate, (and all men were illiterate when their languages were yet in the early period of their formation,) suffer greater wear and tear, than words more rarely employed and current chiefly among the learned. In the progress of a language such words undergo greater and more rapid changes. These considerations may account for the anomalies and contractions which occur in some of the forms enumerated in the above table of irregular comparison, and in the adjectives of similar meaning in other languages.

It will be seen that these remarks are not restricted in their application to adjectives, but may be employed to explain the general fact that the chief irregularities of inflection fall in all languages upon words which express similar meaning and perform similar functions. The verbs, for instance, which express a meaning equivalent to our verb to be are irregularly inflect

[(27) Repeat the substance of what is said of a class of superlatives ending in most.