the predicate (exclusive of themselves), if not to the whole proposition.

All this will be best understood by attention to the models already presented.

There is not much to be said in reference to the punctuation of single propositions having only one subject noun and one verb. Since the great purpose of punctuation (or interpunction) is to separate propositions from one another for the purpose of securing greater perspicuity, a point is seldom employed within such propositions, and what point shall come at the close of a proposition depends on its connection with the rest of the discourse, and cannot with propriety be settled at this stage of our inquiries.

The only instance in which commas are introduced in the course of a simple proposition has been already considered (see § 92: 42), viz.: that in which an adverb, or a noun and preposition expressing a circumstance, that might be separated from the proposition without destroying its general sense, is distinguished by interpunction. The circumstantial expression thus separated from the proposition by punctuation (or rather in this case interpunction), is to be regarded as parenthetic-as thrown into the proposition to express something additional to that which is absolutely essential to the communication of the thought. Commas, here and on many other occasions, serve nearly the same purpose as parenthetic marks. (See Appendix on Punctuation.)

The pupil can now be exercised in analyzing the propositions in any piece of discourse, omitting, in all compound and connected propositions, the conjunctive and connecting words.

The teacher may ask the pupil to tell the principal use of each modification in order, to repeat the rules, and then to describe fully the order of analysis. This description ought to be given after some practice on the examples.

CHAPTER IX.

OF COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS.

§ 101. (1) We pass now from propositions of which all the parts and all the modifications consist of words, not of propositions -as regards matter, consist of the names of conceptions, not of assertions to those which involve in their structure a proposition, either as subject of the principal proposition, or as a modification of one of its members.

(2) To express this distinction among propositions with greater brevity, we may call that species which we have hitherto considered, having words only for their members and modifications, simple propositions, and those which we are now about to consider, involving a proposition as a member of the main assertion, or one or more propositions as modifications of subject or predicate, compound propositions.

NOTE. We use the term compound here as it is used by the grammarians in speaking of words. A compound word means a word formed of two or more words united to constitute a single sign; so a compound proposition, as we use the expression, means two or more propositions united to express a single assertion. When two or more propositions which express assertions independent of each other are connected together, we do not consider such connected propositions as compound propositions. We may, for distinction's Bake, call these when we afterwards come to consider them connected or combined propositions.

By using the term simple, we do not mean to imply that the forms of modification in simple propositions are more simple than those in compound propositions. We do not mean to say that the use of single words to modify nouns, verbs, &c. is more ancient than the use of propositions for the same purpose; nor that modification by means of propositions is an extension and

§ 101. (1) To what subject do we next pass?

(2) State the distinction between simple and compound propositions.

refinement of grammatical construction. On the contrary, we believe that some, at least, of the modifications of simple propositions already considered are a refinement on the employment of propositions for the same purpose. This will be seen when we come to treat of certain kinds of accessory propositions, especially of the adjective accessory proposition. Again, we do not consider that these two classes of propositions are separated by any very exact line of demarcation. By abbreviating the accessory proposition, a compound proposition often assumes the form of a simple proposition, so that the two forms pass into one another by an easy transition. As regards sense, it is often optional with the writer or speaker to employ either a simple proposition with modifications, such as we have treated in the preceding pages, or a compound proposition involving an accessory proposition as its subject or as a modification. The use of the compound proposition having an accessory for modification, may sometimes be more consistent with simplicity of expression than the more abbreviated and often more artificial mode of adopting single-word complements. The distinction then between simple and compound propositions regards chiefly the forms of modification employed in each respectively. When all the complements consist of single words or phrases, we call the proposition simple; when some of the complements are accessory propositions, we call the whole proposition compound, as consisting of more than one proposition and more than one verb, though expressing only one direct assertion of the speaker.

(3) In the analysis of compound propositions, we shall, in conformity with the mode of expression employed in treating of the complements in simple propositions, call the proposition which contains the direct assertion of the speaker, the principal proposition, and that which performs a subordinate part (constituting the subject of the principal, or a complement of some part of it), we shall call the accessory or subordinate proposition.

(4) REMARK.-The learner will please bear in mind that, when we speak of a principal and a subordinate or accessory proposition, we refer to the form of language-to the grammatical arrangement of propositions-not to the relative logical importance of the matter which they express. The proposition, which, grammatically considered, holds the rank of subordinate or accessory (as we shall generally hereafter call it), may be, and often really is, the most important part of the compound proposition, as regards matter. To illustrate by

(8) State the distinction between a principal and an accessory proposition.
(4) Repeat the substance of the remark, and illustrate it by an example.

examples: They say our foes are coming; The servant announced that the house was on fire. In both these compound propositions the first proposition is grammatically considered the principal containing the direct assertion of the speaker, but the latter proposition in both cases undoubtedly contains the most important part of the matter, and is therefore, logically considered, the most important.

102. ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS.-(1) A knowledge of the several kinds of accessory propositions and of their functions is indispensable to the satisfactory analysis of compound propositions. To aid the learner in acquiring this important knowledge is the task which we now propose.

NOTE--If we should perform it imperfectly, we might plead as our apology the intrinsic difficulty of the undertaking, and the small degree of assistance which we can derive from the labors of our predecessors, especially from those who have written on English grammar. We do not mean to say that all parts of the subject before us have been entirely neglected by writers on universal grammar; but so little has been done by our more philosophical grammarians to simplify and to give systematic arrangement to the doctrine of the connection of propositions in discourse, so little to render it readily intelligible and capable of being used in popular elementary education, that the authors of our English school grammars, left without authoritative guidance, have evaded all regular discussion of this subject, and contented themselves with giving instruction, which, with the exception of a few particulars, applies exclusively to simple propositions. It would be much easier for us to follow their example, if we could do so in consistency with our plan of analysis. But if we were, in pursuing our method, to neglect altogether the consideration, especially of accessory propositions and their functions in language, the deficiency would be so conspicuous as to awaken the attention of even the least observant inquirer. We are in treating this subject much more indebted to the German than to our own grammarians, as regards matter. Our method is essentially different from theirs.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACCESSORY PROPOSITIONS.-(2) Some of the German grammarians have arranged accessory propositions under three classes, viz.: substantive accessory propositions, adjective accessory propositions, and adverbial accessory propositions, because they perform functions in discourse resembling one or other of these

102. (1) What is indispensable to the analysis of compound propositions?

(2) Name the three classes in which the German grammarians have arranged accessory propositions; and tell the reason of this arrangement,

three classes of words, substantives, adjectives, or adverbs. In our treatment of accessory propositions, we shall find it convenient to follow the order of this ingenious classification. We shall have abundant opportunity as we proceed, of perceiving that it is a well-founded and natural (not a mere capricious) classification.

(3) We may here remark that there is also a striking resemblance between the functions performed by those words which connect accessorywith principal propositions and the prepositions which serve as intermediary words between a completing and a principal word. Indeed several of the prepositions in our list, § 81: 7, are used before accessory propositions, as well as before nouns, and with exactly the same significance, and to perform the same function; the difference being that in the one case they give what is expressed by the principal word a direction, &c., in reference to what is expressed by a single word (a noun), in the other, in reference to what is expressed by an accessory proposition. For example, in the assertions, James arrived BEFORE me, and James arrived BEFORE I returned, the word before has obviously the same meaning and performs the same function, only in the first example it is the intermediate of arrived and the pronoun me, in the last, it is the intermediate of arrived and the accessory proposition I returned.

OF CONJUNCTIONS.-(4) The words employed to connect subordinate with principal propositions, and also those employed for the purpose of connecting co-ordinate or independent propositions (afterwards to be considered) are called, from the function which they perform, conjunctions. They conjoin or connect propositions. (5) Of the words employed to connect propositions, some are used exclusively for this purpose; some, on the contrary, like before used in the example above, are employed for other only occasionally as conjunctions. (6) The first class, for the sake of distinction, we may call conjunctions, the latter, conjunctive words, or we may connect the term conjunctive with the original class name of these latter words, and call them conjunctive pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and conjunctive prepositions: for conjunctive

purposes,

and

(3) Repeat the substance of the remark about the words used in connecting accessory propositions; and illustrate by examples.

(4) What name is given to the class of words employed in connecting propositions? State the reason for giving them this name. (5) Show how words used for this purpose of connection differ. (6) Mention the means by which this difference may be marked. (1)