Gen. 30: 28; Hag. 1: 6; Rom. 6: 23), amends, are of this class, with ethics, mathematics, physics, and many similar names of sciences. (25) News, though a plural form, is treated in construction as singular. (26) The noun pains, in the sense of trouble, labor, is employed in construction, sometimes as singular, sometimes as plural. (27) Modern usage inclines to the employment of this word exclusively as plural. (28) Riches, originally a singular noun (richesse) introduced from the French language, seems to have been taken by the uneducated for a plural, because it ends in an 8 sound, and hence it has come to be treated as a plural form in grammatical construction. (29) The word always takes plural verbs, and is represented by plural pronouns: "Riches certainly make themselves wings; they fly away," &c.

(30) The word alms is also originally a singular form. This word has come in the same way to be treated generally in the language of the present day as a plural. (31) It is (at least, sometimes) recognised as a singular form by older writers; for example, "Asked an alms." (Acts 3: 3.)

EXERCISE I., II., &c.-Let the learner form propositions having for their subject a given number of the above exceptions to the general rule for the formation of plurals.]

ples. (25) What of the noun news? (26) What of pains, in the sense of trouble? (27) What is said of modern usage in this matter? (28) What is said of the word riches? (29) What form of verbs does it take, and what pronouns represent it? Give example.

(80) What is said of the word alms? (31) Has it ever been treated as singular? Ex

CHAPTER III.

OF THE VERB.

844. PRELIMINARY REMARK.-(1) It is the usual practice, both in Grammars and in Dictionaries, to employ the infinitive (the verbal noun with the prefix to, noticed in § 27) to designate any particular verb. (2) Thus, the word which asserts being is called the verb to be, the word which asserts writing the verb to write, &c. (3) It will be convenient in compliance with universal usage to retain this manner of indicating verbs; though apparently inconsistent with the definition of verbs which we have given, since the verbal with the prefix to is not assertive, and therefore not a verb, according to our definition. (4) The learner will therefore please remember that when we use this form of expression, the verb to write, the verb to think, &c., we do not mean that the words to write, to think, are themselves verbs, but to express concisely (what may be more fully expressed) the verb which asserts the action to write, or of writingthe verb which expresses the action to think, &c.

(5) We here repeat the definition of the verb which we have adopted: viz., THE VERB IS THAT WORD IN A PROPOSITION WHICH EXPRESSES ASSERTION. As we arrange in the class of verbs all the words and only the words which perform the peculiar and readily recognised function of asserting, the learner, after a little practice, can find no difficulty in distinguishing them.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS IN REFERENCE TO THEIR MEANING.(6) The first striking distinction, in reference to meaning which arrests our attention, is that between verbs, which express alone a complete predicate-form a full rational assertion respecting the

§ 44. (1) How are particular verbs designated in grammars and dictionaries? (2) Illustrate by an example. (3) What is said of the practice of indicating verbs in this manner? (4) Repeat the caution given to the learner.

(5) Repeat the definition of a verb and the remark which follows.

(6) Mention a striking distinction among verbs in reference to their meaning. (7) Illus

is to enable them to form a rational predicate. (10) We shall retain the old names neuter and active, or intransitive and transitive, which, as we understand and use them, are equivalent, viz., intransitive to neuter, and transitive to active.

(11) Every verb that always expresses a complete predicate belongs of course to the class of neuter or intransitive verbs. (12) But many verbs which cannot make complete sense without modifying words belong also to the class of neuter verbs-that is, of verbs expressing an action terminating in the subject of which it is asserted. (13) Thus the verb behaves will not form a complete assertion without the help of another word. The boy behaves is not a complete assertion. To express complete sense, we must say, the boy behaves well or behaves ill, or use some other words expressive of the manner of his behavior. [(14) Still this verb requires no passive object. The action of behaving passes over upon no other object; it terminates in the subject. If we place after it a word in the form of an objective complement, it must be a word expressive of the same person with the subject noun; as in the example, the boy behaves HIMSELF well. Here himself refers to the same individual expressed by the subject noun-boy. We cannot say that, the boy behaves any other person or any other thing, well or ill, &c. That is, the verb behaves can take after it no suffering or passive object distinct from the subject of which it is asserted. In other words, the action terminates in the subject.]

(15) It has been already noticed that all the verbs of the class which we have ventured to name complete verbs, admit of modifying or completing words, but none of them admit of the modification of a passive object; they do not express an action which can pass over on an object distinct from the subject of which they are employed to make an assertion. The importance of this distinction among verbs will be better understood, when we come to treat of the various forms of modifications or complements which we attach

been given to them? And why? (10) What names do we adopt? (11) To which of these classes do the complete verbs belong? (12) Are any of the incomplete verbs also neuter? (13) Illustrate by an example. [(14) Repeat what is said in further illustration of the example.]

(15) Do the verbs which we have called complete verbs admit of completing words? Can they be completed by a noun expressive of a passive object?

to them in order to form complete predicates; and when we come to consider the passive form.

[(16) The nature of the distinction between active and neuter verbs may perhaps be rendered more intelligible by the exhibition of examples of neuter verbs which are manifestly equivalent to certain other active verbs, together with a noun expressing a particular passive object. Participate, for instance, is equivalent to the verb take with the noun part employed as its passive object. Participate, to take part. Here take-the active verb-is obviously the less complete of the two, since it requires the complementary word part in order to render it equivalent to participate.*]

* We may here notice the advantage gained in language by employing, as we commonly do, verbs expressive of incomplete predicates, instead of always employing verbs expressive at once of an action and the object which this action immediately affects. The word participate, means exclusively to take part. Indeed it is a compound of two Latin words, the one of which means part and the other take. But the word take may have a vast、 number of other modifications designating passive objects attached to it besides this, and with each of these it will express a distinct assertion; as take advice, take courage, take counsel, take time, &c., &c. And, it will be observed that all the words employed to express these modifications are necessary for other purposes besides this. They are not invented and added to the language for this sole purpose, but already previously existed as names to be used for subject nouns. This is only a secondary use to which they are applied. Now if we had a separate form, as in the case of the word participate, to express the verb take with each of the passive objects which may modify it, we should have a considerable number of words added to the language to express assertions which are sufficiently expressed by the verb take, repeated with certain words already in use for other necessary purposes. When we reflect that what we have now said of the verb take applies to a host of other verbs, we shall be able to conceive what vast economy of words has been effected by the subdivision of thought in the process of forming signs to give it expression. Were not only verbs modified by objective complements, but verbs modified by all the other complements (of which we shall treat presently), serving to make up full and perfect predicates, to be expressed by separate distinct forms corresponding to each several modification, the increase of words would be still immensely greater. The next step in a retrograde direction would be to express every distinct proposition, subject, predicate, and all their several modifications by one dis

[(16) Illustrate the distinction between active and neuter verbs by the example of the verb participate.]

[(17) We must not omit to notice that frequently the same word is used both as an active and a neuter verb-but, let it be remembered, with very different meanings. (18) Thus, The ship sinks, and The pirate sinks the ship. In the first case the word sinks expresses an action which terminates in the subject, in the latter case an action which necessarily passes over upon a suffering or passive object; that is, an object which suffers, or receives, or is affected directly by the action. (19) We have similar examples in Glass breaks, and John breaks the glass; The wood burns, and The man burns the wood; William feels warm, and The physician feels the patient's pulse, &c. (20) Here the verbs, "breaks," "burns," "feels," are used both transitively and intransitively, in an active and in a neuter sense, but the meaning of these words, when employed transitively and intransitively, is totally different; the actions asserted in the two cases are altogether unlike. (2) The action of burning asserted of the wood in the one case, and the action of burning asserted of the man who uses wood as fuel in the other case, are as unlike as almost any other two actions. Both agree in being attended by the same phenomenon the combustion of wood, and from this come to be expressed by the same word, the same sign. The verb burns has a third meaning distinct from the two already mentioned; as, for example, when we say, The fire burns any substance placed near it, The fire burns the boy's clothes. (22) In regard to most of these verbs doubly employed, as active and as neuter verbs, the neuter seems to be the primitive or original use, and the active a secondary use usurped in the progress of the language. (23) Many tinct sign. A language of this kind would be wholly unmanageable and nearly useless in the intercourse of life. We reap much advantage from the complex method adopted for the purpose of expressing thought—the method of employing propositions consisting of numerous signs (words) orderly arranged. We should not, therefore, complain, if this complex arrangement sometimes occasions a little trouble in grammatical analysis, and often renders great care necessary on the part of the speaker and writer to avoid ambiguity and obscurity.

[(17) What is said of the same word being employed both in a neuter and in an active sense? (18) Illustrate by an example. (19) Give other examples. (20) What is said of the difference of meaning in all these examples between the active and neuter verb? (21) Illustrate in the case of burn in a neuter, and burn in an active sense. (22) Which ap