WIN oxos, i.e., the "vinegar," or "wine," presented to Christ. (Matt. xxvii. 34, 48; Mark xv. 23, 36; Luke xxiii. 36; John xix. 29, 30.)-See VINEGAR. the least so, of all the products for which the vine is cultivated; still, all that is now called wine in the East is as truly wine as that which is called wine in France. Whether boiled or not, whether sweet or sour, all the known wines are more or less intoxicating. The several liquid and almost solid products of the grape, as syrup, molasses, preserves, sugar, etc,, are never called wines in the East. The inspissated grape juice, which yields a syrup or molasses, should never be confounded with inspissated wine, which is an intoxicating liquor. Indeed, if the grape had been used by the Hebrews mainly for producing an intoxicating liquor, as in some of the countries of Europe, one may venture to suppose that it would never have held in the Bible the prominent place as a precious product that it now does. -See GRAPES, and VINE. 10. SHEMARIM. This Hebrew word, rendered "lees," or "dregs," (Isa. xxv. 6; Ps. lxxv. 8,) signifies preserves, and refers to the lees of wine, the dregs; and also to wine preserved on the lees, by which its strength and flavour was preserved. The term is also supposed to designate preserves or jellies of fruit, especially of grapes. The modern Orientals have several kinds of preserves. They preserve or pickle clusters of the grapes, by pouring upon them fresh must boiled down to one half, so as to fill the vessels. When ready for use, the grapes and juice are offered together, to be eaten and drunk; but the liquor, though exhilarating, is too sour to suit unaccustomed palates. One very common mode of WINE-PRESS. The Hebrew word making grape preserves is to boil the freshly expressed juice, after having purah, rendered "wine-press;" (Isa. removed the acidity and checked the lxii. 3;) and "press," (Hag. ii. 16,) tendency to ferment, by throwing in designates, a kind of large wine-press, or vat, in which the grapes were broken calcareous earth, then to boil it with various kinds of fruit, as apples, or crushed by the treading of several quinces, plums, and peaches; and of persons. So also, the Hebrew word vegetables, green tomatos, egg-plants, gath, rendered "press;" (Joel iii. 13;) pumpkins, squashes, and water melon "wine-press;" (Lam. i. 15; Neh. xiii. rinds. This preparation is used for 15;) and "wine-fat," (Isa. Ixiii. 2,) sauces and preserves, during the whole designates the vat or trough, called year. Grape sugar is derived from the lenos, (Rev. xiv. 19, 20; xix. 15,) in boiling of grape juice to make grape which the grapes, or other fruits, were syrup or molasses. After the lime and trodden or crushed, whence the juice ashes have taken effect, and the liquor flowed off into the yekeb, called upoleis boiling, the scum, which rises to the nion, (Mark xii. 1,) or lower vat placed near. The Hebrew term yekeb, rendertop, is ladled off into other boilers; cd "wine," (Deut. xvi. 13;) "winewhen a sufficient quantity has been amassed, it is again slightly boiled, press;" (Deut. xv. 14; Judg. vii. 25; Kings vi. 27; Job xxiv. 11; Isa. v. cleansed with eggs, and poured into barrels for use. In the barrels it ap-2; Zech. xiv. 10; Jer. xlviii. 33; Hos. pears as a solid, uncrystallized, yellow ix. 2;) "wine-fat; (Hos. ix. 2, margin;) substance, like paste; it is cut out for "press;" (Isa. xiv. 10; Prov. iii. 10;) use and sale with a broad knife. It is "press-fat;" Hagg. 11. 16;) and "fats," extensively used in the manufacture (Joel ii. 24; iii. 13,) signifies an exof confectionery ; but is said not to have cavated place; hence the wine-vat, or as the grape receptacle into which the wine-juice Sometimes as much sweetness flowed from the press. molasses or syrup.-See LEES, and HONEY. Though, as we have seen, wine is not the most important, but rather this term appears to designate the store-house, in which the grapes were preserved and the wine press fixed. (Deut. xvi. 13, margin; 2 Kings vi. 27.) Dr. Robinson, when in the neighbourhood of Gilgal, saw an ancient winepress hewn in the rock. He says, “It was complete, with the upper shallow vat for treading the grapes, and the lower deeper one to receive the liquid; and might still be used, were there here grapes to tread." The ordinary wine-press in the East is a kind of large cistern, with apertures near the bottom, through which the expressed juice runs into a vat beneath. Sometimes as many as five men are seen, with feet and legs bare, treading the fruit in the cistern; singing and shouting as in ancient times, while the grape juice is flowing around them. The ancient Egyptian monuments exhibit a wine-press not unlike this, having a temporary beam extended over it, with short ropes hanging down; which by its rebound, aided the treaders as they held by it. The monuments also exhibit the process of twisting the grapes in a bag, similar to that of the Torcular among the Romans. WINNOWING.-See THRESHING. WINTER. In Palestine, part of autumn and the seasons of seed-time and cold, extending from the beginning of September to the beginning of March, were called "winter." (Gen. viii. 22; Ps. lxxiv. 17; Zech. xiv. 8; Jer. xxxvi. 22.) The cold of winter is not usually very severe, though the north winds, from the middle of December to the middle of February, are exceedingly penetrating. Snow falls more or less, but seldom lies upon the ground, except in the mountains. (Ps. cxlvii. 17.) In shady places the ice will occasionally bear a man's weight, but thaws as soon as the sun rises upon it. In the plain of Jericho, the winter is more genial than the spring of northern countries; while in the mountainous country around Jerusalem, it is often more inclement than might be expected. (Matt. xxiv. 20.) In this season, the most furious storms of hail are experienced all over the land; | the brooks rise, and all their streams fill their channels; and thunder and lightning are frequent. Towards the end of January the fields exhibit the approach of spring. In the early part of April it is still cold, but less so, and the spring may be said to have arrived (Sol. Song ii. 11.)-See SEASONS. WISDOM. The wisdom of God is that attribute of the Divine Being by which, with infinite skill, He orders all things for the promotion of His glory, and the good of His creatures. (Rom. xi. 3.) This is manifested in all His works; (Ps. civ. 24;) in the dispensations of His providence; (P's. cvii. 1-10; cxlv. 8, 20;) and in the work of redemption. (Eph. iii. 10, 11; 1 Cor. i. 21, 24; Col. ii. 3; Rev. v. 12; vii. 12.) The term "wisdom" is also used of the Divine wisdom as revealed in and by Christ; (Matt. xi. 19; Luke vii. 37; xi. 49; Mark vi. 2;) also of Christ Himself, as the author and source of wisdom. (1 Cor. i. 30.) In Prov. i. 20-33; viii. 1-36; ix. 1 -12, we have a beautiful poetic personification of the lessons of Divine wisdom, which, by the constitution of nature and the course of Divine providence, and specially by God's revealed word, are perpetually inculcated on men, admonishing them to walk in the fear of God., Some, indeed, understand "wisdom" here to be the same as the Logos or Word. (John i. 1, 14.) Among the Hebrews, the term hhakam = “wisdom," compre. hended a wide circle of virtues and mental endowments. (Ex. xxviii. 3; xxxi. 6; 1 Kings iii. 28; iv. 29-34.) The wisdom or philosophy of the Greeks and Romans, as it stood in contrast with the simplicity of Divine truth, is called "fleshly wisdom;" (2 Cor. i. 12 ;) "wisdom of this world;" (1 Cor. i. 20; iii. 19 ;) and "wisdom of men." (1 Cor. ii. 5.) In respect to Divine things, "wisdom," or the practical application of knowledge, is represented everywhere as a Divine gift. (Acts vi. 10; 1 Cor. xii. 8; Eph. i. 17; Col. i. 9; 2 Tim. iii, 15; James i. 5; iii. 13, 15, 17.) WISE MEN. The Hebrew word hhakamim, rendered "wise men," (Gen. xli. 8; Ex. vii. 11; Eccl. ix. 17; Jer. 1. 35; Est. i. 13,) not only designates men celebrated for wisdom, but also the Egyptian, the Chaldean, and the Persian magicians. The same term hhakmah, is used for a "wise woman," one noted for cunning or skill. (2 Sam. xiv. 2; xx. 16.) The Hebrew word hhartummiim, rendered "magicians," (Gen. xli. 8, 24; Ex. vii. 11, 22; viii. 7, 18, 19; ix. 11; Dan. i. 20; ii. 21,) properly signifies sacred scribes; and is applied to a class of Egyptian priests; and also to the magi of Babylon and Persia.-See MAGI. "sorcery," signifies incantation, sorcery; (Isa. xlvii. 12;) and "witchcraft." (2 Kings ix. 22; Mic. v. 12; Nah. iii. 4; 2 Chron. xxxiii. 6.) This word is rendered in the Septuagint by the Greek word pharmakeia, rendered in the New Testament, "sorcery;" (Rev. ix. 21; xviii. 23;) and "witchcraft." (Gal. v. 20.) It is not improbable that the pretended exercise of this art was accompanied with the use of drugs, or fumigations made from them, with other resources of natural magic.-See DIVINATION, and ORACLE. WITNESS.-See TRIAL. WITNESS OF THE SPIRIT. The witness or testimony of the Spirit is the WITCHCRAFT. Among the He- inward distinct assurance that every brews, persons who pretended the believer has, that the Spirit of God practice of occult arts were known by immediately and directly witnesses to, different names. They were said to and with, his spirit, that he is a child possess the ob, or spirit of divination; of God; that through faith in Jesus rendered a "familiar spirit;" properly Christ, who died and rose again for one inflated, a ventriloquist. (Lev. him, all his sins are blotted out, and xix. 31; xx. 6, 27; Deut. xviii. 11; 1 he is reconciled to God. (Rom. viii. Sam. xxviii. 7; 2 Kings xxi. 6; xxiii. 14-17; Gal. iv. 5—7; John i. 12; 1 24; 2 Chron. xxxiii. G; Isa. viii. 19; John v. 9-13.) Mr. Wesley, speakxix. 3.) Such also were the pythones, ing of the Spirit of God bearing witamong the Greeks. (Acts xvi. 16.) The ness with the spirits of believers, has word mecashsheph, rendered "sorcerer;" well observed: "I do not mean hereby, (Ex. vii. 11; Jer. xxvii. 9; Dan. ii. 2; that the Spirit of God testifies this by Mal. iii. 5;) like the Greek pharmakos, any outward voice; no, nor always by (Rev. xxi. 8; xxii. 15,) designates one an inward voice, although He may do who uses magic formulas, incantations, this sometimes. Neither do I suppose a magician; also a woman of like that He always applies to the heart, practices, rendered "a witch." (Ex.though He often may, one or more xxii. 18; Deut. xviii. 10.) The word iddioni, rendered "a wizard," i.e., a wise man, denotes a sorcerer. (Lev. xix. 31; xx. 6, 27; Deut. xviii. 11; 1 Sam. xxviii. 3, 9; Isa. viii. 19; xix. 3.) The term kosem, rendered a "diviner," denotes one who foretells, a false prophet; (1 Sam. vi. 2; Isa. xliv. 25;) and "soothsayer." (Josh. xiii. 22.) The word kesem, rendered "divination;" (Deut. xviii. 10; Num. xxiii. 23; Jer. xiv. 14; Ezek. xxii. 22 ;) signifies divination by lot, also by arrows, entrails, and teraphim. (Ezek. xxi. 21, margin.) The word lehatim, rendered "enchantments," (Ex. vii. 11, 22,) denotes secret or magie arts. So also the word kesheph, rendered | texts of Scripture. But He so works upon the soul by His immediate influence, and by a strong, though inexplicable, operation, that the stormy wind and troubled waves subside, and there is a sweet calm; the heart resting as in the arms of Jesus, and the sinner being clearly satisfied that all his iniquities are forgiven and his sins covered.' The immediate result of this testimony is, "the fruit of the Spirit-love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance." (Gal. v. 22, 23.) And without these, the testimony itself cannot continue. For it is inevitably destroyed, not only by the commission of any outward sin, or the WIZ omission of known duty, but by giving WIZARD-See WITCHCRAFT. WOMAN. The companion and helper of man, "bone of his bone, and flesh of his flesh." Adapted to the man, as a counterpart of himself, and like him in person, disposition, and affections, she was destined to be united to him in the tenderest ties, to aid, sympathise with, and comfort him; in a word, she was his second self. (Gen. ii. 21-25; iii. 16.) In those parts of the East where the hallowed influence of the Bible has not prevailed, women have been subjected to degradation, and viewed as little better than the slaves of their imperious masters. Being mainly im 780 WOO mured within the harem, and prohibited from mingling in general society, their minds are left wholly unculti vated; and what time they can spare pally devoted to embroidery, dress, from their household duties is princiand smoking. This universal want of education, with the influence of polygamy, naturally disqualifies them from being the proper companions of their husbands. The effect of polygamy was wives to the husband's mother. The to transfer female influence from the state of morality in the higher circles, in some of the principal Eastern cities, consequent on this condition of society, is just what might be expected. Whervails, woman is invariably elevated to ever the influence of Christianity preher natural position in society-the equal and companion of man. Henceforward, where free and honoured, women exert a power and influence its manners. European society has upon society, and give the direction to left far behind it the barbarian civilization of the East, entirely from the power of the wife over the husband, and that of the mother over the child. So that it appears as if nature attached our intelligence to their dignity, just virtue. At the beginning, God created as we attach our happiness to their only one man and one woman, and ever since the two sexes have been born in about equal numbers. Thus, each man ought to have his companion-it is the law of nature; all the rest is only barbarity and corruption. (Prov. xi. 16; xii. 4; xiv. 1; xxxi. 10.)-See WIFE. of the oblation or offering of wood, for WOOD OFFERING. This festival the keeping up of the perpetual fire mentioned in Neh. x. 34; xiii. 31. upon the altar of the Lord, is only The several families appear to have been appointed by lot to bring up the wood at times appointed, year by year. This offering was probably a postexilian institution; and is said to have and rejoicing, on the fifteenth day of been celebrated, with much solemnity the month Ab=August. It is called by Josephus the festival of the Xylophoreia, upon which the custom was for every one to bring wood for the altar, that there might never be a want of fuel for that fire which was unquenchable and always burning. (Wars, ii. 17. 6; Lev. vi. 12.) WOOL. As the staple material for the manufacture of clothing, wool was an article of the highest value to the Hebrews. (Lev. xiii. 47; Deut. xxii. 11; Job xxxi. 20; Prov. xxxi. 13; Ezek. xxxiv. 3; Hos. ii. 5.) The importance of wool is incidently shown by the notice that the tribute of the Moabites was paid in "an hundred thousand lambs, and an hundred thou. sand rams, with the wool." (2 Kings iii. 4.) The wool of Damascus was highly prized in the mart of Tyre. (Ezek. xxvii. 18.) The Hebrews were forbidden to wear a garment mingled of woollen and linen. (Lev. xix. 19; Deut. xxii. 11.) This prohibition stands in connection with other laws, forbidding that mingled seed should be sown in a field, or that an ox and an ass should plough together.-See LINEN. WORD OF GOD. The Greek term Logos, translated "Word," is the name given to the Divine or pre-existent nature of Christ, designating Him as the great medium of communication between God and man. (John i. 1, 14; 1 John i. 1; v. 7; Rev. xix. 13; compare Heb. iv. 12.) This remarkable usage of the term Logos or "Word," as designating not a mere attribute, but a real hypostasis or substantial Being, who was with God, at the same time, God Himself, does not appear to have been derived from the poetical personification of "wisdom," in Prov. viii. 12, 22; nor from later Jewish writers. As John has united the idea of personality with his designation of the Logos, it is certain that he could not have derived his views from the Logos of Plato, nor from that of Philo -which is a mere abstraction or personification of Divine power, intelligence, and wisdom. Though the Evangelist does not appear to have 781 WOR derived his views of the Logos directly unlikely that they resulted from the from the Old Testament; yet, it is not manner in which the Hebrews were Jehovah," as the principal instrument accustomed to speak of the "word of been made from above, in a manner of all the communications that have fication. (Gen. i. 3; xv. 1; 1 Chron. which not unfrequently led to personixvii. 3; Ps. xxxiii. 6; cxix. 50; cxlvii. 18; Heb. xi. 3; 2 Pet. iii. 5.) The same usage, where the memra or ear, as the shekinah is the revelation of "word" is the revelation of God to the God to the sight, is prevalent in the Jewish Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases. regarded the "word of the Lord," in Still, the enlightened Hebrew such passages, as a communication from God, and not as a real person. And if such communications are called the "word of God," and even vividly personified, then it is nothing strange, that, under a mediatorial economy, He who is the author and medium of all saving communication between God and man should be called the "Word Gospel of John, the original state or of God." In the prologue to the tial nature, are first described; and condition of the Logos, and His essenwhich had been made either in the then the developments of Himself, way of creation or redemption. He is eternal; was with God; was God. As such, He was the Creator of all things without exception. In parti cular, He was the source of all life; and as the author of spiritual life, He tual light. (1 Cor. viii. 6; Col. i. 15— was the source also of all true spiri19;. Heb. i. 2, 3.) The Logos was God revealed apostate creatures, and disclosing to communicating with His them the way of salvation. various Divine revelations to the The patriarchs, and to others under the law, whether as the angel Jehovah, or otherwise in visions, voices, and symbols, were revelations by the Logos. In the shekinah, the symbol of the Divine presence over the mercy-seat, and also in the theophany described |