people (cf. Cabrol, "Étude sur la Peregrinatio", Paris, 1895, 45-46). The number of psalms is not stated. In the sixth century the Rule of St. Benedict gives the detailed composition of this Office. We quote it here because it is almost the same as the Roman Liturgy; either the latter borrowed from St. Benedict, or St. Benedict was inspired by the Roman usage. Sext, like Terce and None, was composed at most of three psalms, of which the choice was fixed, the Deus in adjutorium, a hymn, a lesson (capitulum), a versicle, the Kyrie Eleison, and the customary concluding prayer and dismissal (xvii, cf. xviii).

In the Roman liturgy Sext is also composed of the Deus in adjutorium, a hymn, three portions of Ps. cxviii, the lesson, the short response, the versicle, and the prayer. In the Greek Church Sext is composed like the other lesser hours of two parts; the first includes Pss. liii, liv, xc, with invitatory, tropes, and conclusion. The second, of Mesarion which is very similar to the first, consists of Pss. lv, lvi, and lxix. In the modern Mozarabic Office Sext consists only of Ps. liii, three "octonaries" of Ps. cxviii, two lessons, the hymn, the supplication, the capitulum, the Pater Noster, and the benediction.

Beside the authors mentioned in the course of the article see DUCHESNE, Christian Worship (London, 1904), 448, 449, 450, 492; BONA, De divina psalmodia, viii, de sexta; SMITH, Dict. of Christ. Antiq., s. v. Office, The Divine; NEALE AND LITTLEDALE, Comment, on the Psalms, I, 7, 32, 34, etc.; BATIFFOL, Hist. du bréciaire romain, 3rd. ed. (Paris, 1911), 19-21. FERNAND CABROL.

Sexton (Old English Sexestein, sextein, through the French sacristain from Lat. sacrista), one who guards the church edifice, its treasures, vestments, etc., and as an inferior minister attends to burials, bell-ringings and similar offices about a church. In ancient times, the duties of the modern sexton, who is generally a layman, were part of the functions of the clerical order of ostiariatus. The clerics called ostiarii had the keys of the church committed to them and were re

зponsible for the guardianship of the sacred edifice, the holy vessels, books, and vestments. They opened the church and summoned the faithful to the Divine Mysteries. Others of them were specially deputed to guard the bodies and shrines of the martyrs. According to the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIII, cap. xvii, De Ref.), the sexton or sacristan should be a cleric, but it allowed him to be a married man, provided he received the tonsure and wore the clerical dress. By custom, however, these conditions have ceased to be effective, and at present the office is usually held by a layman. In many cathedral churches, e. g. in Austria and Germany, the title of sacristan or custos is still held by a priest, who is generally one of the dignitaries of the cathedral chapter, and has supervision of the fabric of the cathedral and of the buildings that serve for the residences of canons and parochial vicars. This official has special charge of the cure of souls and sees also to the solemnizing of the great church festivals. He generally has an assistant, whose particular duty it is to watch over the performance of the Divine service in choir. According to a decision of the Roman Rota, the sacristan of a cathedral church should always be in priest's orders. In Rome the office of sacristan in the Apostolic palace is always committed to a member of the Order of Hermits of St. Augustine, by a Decree of Pope Alexander VI. The sacristan of the conclave for the election of a new pope has all the privileges of the conclavists.

FERRARIS, Bibl. canonica, VII (Rome, 1891), s. v.. Sacrista, WILLIAM H. W. FANNING.

Seychelles Islands. See PORT VICtoria, Dio

CESE OF.

Sfondrati, CELESTINO, Prince-abbot of St. Gall and cardinal, b. at Milan, 10 January, 1644; d. at Rome, 4 September, 1696. He belonged to the noble Milanese family of the Sfondrati, of which Cardinals Francesco and Paolo Sfondrati and Pope Gregory XIV were members. At the age of twelve he was placed in the school at Rorschach, on the Bodensee, which was conducted by the Benedictines of St. Gall, and on 26 April, 1660, he took the Benedictine habit at St. Gall. When twenty-two years old he already taught philosophy and theology at Kempten, and, after his elevation to the priesthood (26 April, 1668), he became professor and master of novices at his monastery. From 1679 to 1682 he taught canon law at the Benedictine University of Salzburg. In 1682 he returned to St. Gall to take charge of a small country church near Rorschach for a short time, whereupon Abbot Gallus appointed him his vicar-general. In 1686 Pope Innocent XI created him Bishop of Novara, a dignity which he accepted only with reluctance. He was, however, prevented form taking possession of his see by being elected Prince-abbot of St. Gall on 17 April, 1687. As abbot he set an example of great piety and mortification to his monks, and watched carefully over the observance of monastic discipline; as prince, he ruled mildly and rendered himself dear to his people by his great charity, which he had a special opportunity to practise during the famine of 1693. His learning and piety, as well as his able literary works in defence of the papal authority against the principles of Gallicanism, induced Pope Innocent XII to create him cardinal-priest on 12 December, 1695, with the titular

church of St. Cæcilia in Trastevere. But he had

scarcely reached Rome when his health began to fail. He died nine months after receiving the purple and was buried in his titular church. His chief works are: (1) "Cursus theologicus in gratiam et utilitatem Fratrum Religiosorum" (10 vols., St. Gall, 1670), published anonymously; (2) "Disputatio juridica de 2nd ed., Salem, 1718), a moral treatise against Problege in præsumptione fundata" (Salzburg, 1681; abilism; (3) "Regale sacerdotium Romano Pontifici assertum" (St. Gall, 1684; 1693; 1749), published able defence of the papal authority and privileges under the pseudonym of Eugenius Lombardus, an against the Four Articles of the Declaration of the French Clergy (1682); (4) “Cursus philosophicus monasterii S. Galli" (3 vols., St. Gall, 1686; 1695); (5) "Gallia vindicata" (2 vols., St. Gall, 1688; 1702), another able treatise against Gallicanism, in particular against Maimbourg; (6) "Legatio Marchionis Lavardini ejusque cum Innocentio XI dissidium" (1688), a short treatise concerning the right of asylum (les franchises) of the French ambassadors at Rome; (7) "Nepotismus theologice expensus" (St. Gall, 1692); (8) "Innocentia vindicata" (St. Gall, 1695; Graz, 1708), an attempt to prove that St. Thomas held the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception; (9) "Nodus prædestinationis ex sac. litteris doctrinaque SS. Augustini et Thomæ, quantum homini licet, dissolutus" (Rome, 1697; Cologne, 1705), a posthumous work against the Jansenists, in which the author expounds the difficult question of grace and predestination in the sense of Molina and the Jesuits. It called forth numerous rejoinders but found also many defenders [see Dunand in "Revue du Clergé Français", III (Paris, 1895), 316-26],

ZIEGELBAUER, Hist. rei literarie ord. S. Ben., III, 416-20; EGGER, Colestin Sfondrati, Kardinal und Fürstabt, (1896); SATTLER, Collectaneenblätter zur Gesch. der ehem. Ben. Universität Salzburg (Kempten, 1890), 237-45. MICHAEL OTT.

made and printed in the lifetime of contemporaries,

and though it pretended to rest upon the testimony of Judge Christopher Milton, his brother, who did become a Catholic) the statement is certainly untrue (see The Month, Jan., 1909, pp. 1-13 and 92-93). This emphasizes the need of caution-the more so that Shakespeare at least had been dead more than seventy years when Archdeacon R. Davies (d. 1708) wrote in his supplementary notes to the biographical collections of the Rev. W. Fulman that the dramatist had a monument at Stratford, adding the words: "He dyed a Papyst". Davies, an Anglican clergyman, could have had no conceivable motive for misrepresenting the matter in these private notes and as he lived in the neighbouring county of Gloucestershire he may be echoing a local tradition. To this must be added the fact that independent evidence establishes a strong presumption that John Shakespeare, the poet's father, was or had been a Catholic. His wife Mary Arden, the poet's mother, undoubtedly belonged to a family that remained conspicuously Catholic through out the reign of Elizabeth. John Shakespeare had held municipal office in Stratford-on-Avon during Mary's reign at a time when it seems agreed that Protestants were rigorously excluded from such posts. It is also certain that in 1592 John Shakespeare was presented as a recusant, though classified among those "recusants heretofore presented who were thought to forbear coming to church for fear of process of debt". Though indications are not lacking that John Shakespeare was in very reduced circumstances, it is also quite possible that his alleged poverty was only assumed to cloak his conscientious scruples.

A document, supposed to have been found about 1750 under the tiles of a house in Stratford which had once been John Shakespeare's, professes to be the spiritual testament of the said John Shakespeare, and assuming it to be authentic it would clearly prove him to have been a Catholic. The document, which was at first unhesitatingly accepted as genuine by Malone, is considered by most modern Shakespeare scholars to be a fabrication of J. Jordan who sent it to Malone (Lee, "Life of William Shakespeare", London, 1908, p. 302). It is certainly not entirely a forgery (see The Month, Nov., 1911), and it produces in part a form of spiritual testament attributed to St. Charles Borromeo. Moreover, there is good evidence that a paper of this kind was really found. Such testaments were undoubtedly common among Catholics in the sixteenth century. Jordan had no particular motive for forging a very long, dreary, and tedious profession of Catholicism, only remotely connected with the poet; and although it has been said that John Shakespeare could not write (Lee, J. W. Gray, and C. C. Stopes maintain the contrary), it is quite conceivable that a priest or some other Catholic friend drafted the document for him, a copy of which was meant to be laid with him in his grave. All this goes to show that the dramatist in his youth must have been brought up in a very Catholic atmosphere, and indeed the history of the Gunpowder Plot conspirators (the Catesbys lived at Bushwood Park in Stratford parish) shows that the neighbourhood was regarded as quite a hotbed of recusancy.

On the other hand many serious difficulties stand in the way of believing that William Shakespeare could have been in any sense a staunch adherent of the old religion. To begin with, his own daughters were not only baptized in the parish church as their father had been, but were undoubtedly brought up as Protestants, the elder, Mrs. Hall, being apparently rather Puritan in her sympathies. Again Shakepeare was buried in the chancel of the parish church, though it is admitted that no argument can be deduced from this as to the creed he professed (Lee, op. cit., p. 220). More significant are such facts as that in 1608 he stood godfather to a child of Henry Walker, as shown by the parish register, that in 1614 he entertained a preacher

at his house "the New Place", the expense being apparently borne by the municipality, that he was very familiar with the Bible in a Protestant version, that the various legatees and executors of his will cannot in any way be identified as Catholics, and also that he seems to have remained on terms of undiminished intimacy with Ben Jonson, despite the latter's exceptionally disgraceful apostasy from the Catholic Faith, which he had for a time embraced. To these considerations must now be added the fact recently brought to light by the researches of Dr. Wallace of Nebraska, that Shakespeare during his residence in London lived for at least six years (1598-1604) at the house of Christopher Mountjoy, a refugee French Huguenot, who maintained close relations with the French Protestant Church in London (Harper's Magazine, March, 1910, pp. 489-510). Taking these facts in connexion with the loose morality of the Sonnets, of Venus and Adonis, etc. and of passages in the play, not to speak of sundry vague hints preserved by tradition of the poet's rather dissolute morals, the conclusion seems certain that, even if Shakespeare's sympathies were with the Catholics, he made little or no attempt to live up to his convictions. For such a man it is intrinsically possible and even likely that, finding himself face to face with death, he may have profited by the happy incident of the presence of some priest in Stratford to be reconciled with the Church before the end came. Thus Archdeacon Davies's statement that "he dyed a Papyst" is by no means incredible, but it would obviously be foolish to build too much upon an unverifiable tradition of this kind. The point must remain forever uncertain.

As regards the internal evidence of the plays and poems, no fair appreciation of the arguments advanced by Simpson, Bowden, and others can ignore the strong leaven of Catholic feeling conspicuous in the works as a whole. Detailed discussion would be impossible here. The question is complicated by the doubt whether certain more Protestant passages have any right to be regarded as the authentic work of Shakespeare. For example, there is a general consensus of opinion that the greater part of the fifth act of "Henry VIII" is not his. Similarly in "King John" any hasty references drawn from the anti-papal tone of certain speeches must be discounted by a comparison between the impression left by the finished play as it came from the hands of the dramatist and the virulent prejudice manifest in the older drama of "The Troublesome Reign of King John", which Shakespeare transformed. On the other hand the type of such characters as Friar Lawrence or of the friar in "Much Ado About Nothing", of Henry V, of Katherine of Aragon, and of others, as well as the whole ethos of "Measure for Measure", with numberless casual allusions, all speak eloquently for the Catholic tone of the poet's mind (see, for example, the references to purgatory and the last sacraments in "Hamlet", Act I, sc. 5).

Neither can any serious arguments to show that Shakespeare knew nothing of Catholicism be drawn from the fact that in "Romeo and Juliet" he speaks of "evening Mass". Simpson and others have quoted examples of the practice of occasionally saying Mass in the afternoon, one of the places where this was wont to happen being curiously enough Verona itself, the scene of the play. The real difficulty against Simpson's thesis comes rather from the doubt whether Shakespeare was not infected with the atheism, which, as we know from the testimony of writers as opposite in spirit as Thomas Nashe and Father Persons, was rampant in the more cultured society of the Elizabethan age. Such a doubting or sceptical attitude of mind, as multitudes of examples prove in our own day, is by no means inconsistent with a true appreciation of the beauty of Catholicism, and even apart from this it would surely not be surprising that such a man as

Shakespeare should think sympathetically and even tenderly of the creed in which his father and mother had been brought up, a creed to which they probably adhered at least in their hearts. The fact in any case remains that the number of Shakespearean utterances expressive of a fundamental doubt in the Divine economy of the world seems to go beyond the requirements of his dramatic purpose and these are constantly put into the mouths of characters with whom the poet is evidently in sympathy. A conspicuous example is the speech of Prospero in "The Tempest", probably the latest of the plays, ending with the words:"We are such stuff

As dreams are made on, and our little life Is rounded with a sleep". Whether the true Shakespeare speaks here no one can ever tell, but even if it were so, such moods pass and are not irreconcilable with faith in God when the soul is thrown back upon herself by the near advent of suffering or death. A well-known example is afforded by the case of Littré.

The most serious and original contribution made from a

Catholic point of view to the question of Shakespeare's religious

opinions is by RICHARD SIMPSON in The Rambler (July, 1851; and March, April, and May, 1858). A volume founded on the materials printed and manuscript accumulated by Simpson was afterwards published by FATHER H. S. BOWDEN, The Religion of Shakespeare (London, 1899). In the present writer's judgment, the evidence in favour of the poet's Catholicity is unduly pressed by both of these investigators and the difficulties too lightly dismissed, but on the other hand Simpson's thesis certainly deserves more careful examination than it has usually received, even from the few who have noticed his arguments, for example from CANON BEECHING in vol. X of the Stratford Town edition of the Works of Shakespeare (Stratford, 1907).

See also: LILLY, Studies in Religion and Literature (London, 1904), 1-30: COLLINS, Studies in Shakespeare (London, 1904); GILDEA in Amer. Cath. Quart. Ret. (Philadelphia, 1900); BAUMGARTNER in Kirchenlexikon (Freiburg, 1899); HAGER, Die Grösse Shakespeares (Freiburg, 1878); SPANIER, Der "Papist" Shakespeare in Hamlet (Trier, 1890); Raich, Shakespeare's Stellung zur kat. Kirche (Mainz, 1884); CARTER, Shakespeare Puritan and Recusant (Edinburgh, 1897); DowNING, God in Shakespeare (London, 1901); HOLLAND, Shakespeare's Unbelief (Boston, 1884); IRWIN, Shakespeare's Religious Belief in Overland Monthly (San Francisco, Aug. and Sept., 1875); POPE, Shakespeare the Great Dramatic Demonstrator of Catholic Faith (Washington, 1902); ROBERTSON, Religion of Shakespeare (London, 1877); SCHULER, Shakespeare's Confession in Katholische Flugschriften (No. 134); WILKES, Shakespeare from an American Point of View (New York, 1877); COUNTERMINE, The Religious Belief of Shakespeare (New York, 1906), a booklet of no value; Rio, William Shakespeare (Paris, 18614); MAHON in Edinburgh Review (Jan., 1866); THURSTON in Month (May, 1882; Nov., 1911); BoswIN, The Religion of Shakespeare (Trichinopoly, 1899); ROFFE, Real Religion of Shakespeare (London, 1872). HERBERT THURSTON.

Shamanism (from Shaman or Saman, a word derived by Bantzaroff from Manchu saman, i. e., an excited or raving man, by van Gennep and Keane from Saman a Tungus word; others say a later dialectic form of the Sanskrit sraman, i.e., a worker or toiler), a vague term used by explorers of Siberia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to designate not a specific religion but a form of savage magic or science, by which physical nature was believed to be brought under the control of man. It prevails among Turanian and Mongolian tribes and American Indians, and blends with their varied religious beliefs and customs. Thus the Turanians believe the shamans were a class created by the heaven-god Tengri to struggle for men's good against the evil spirits. The Buddhist Mongols call Shamanism shara-shadshin, i. e., the black faith, the Chinese tjao-ten, i. e., dancing before spirits. The shamans are variously designated, e. g., by Tatars kam, by Samoyeds taryib, by Ostjaks tadib, by Buriates boe, by Yakut Turks oyun, by American Indians medicine men. In the Bhagavata Purana the Jains are called shramans. In PersianHindu the term "shaman" means an idolater. In Tibet Shamanism represents a Buddhism degenerated into demonology. Thus the Mongols say that shamans are closely allied with Odokil, or Satan, who will not injure any tribe that obeys its wizards.

(1) Shamanism rests for its basis on the animistic view of nature. Animism (q. v.) teaches that primi

The

tive and savage man views the world as pervaded by spiritual forces. Fairies, goblins, ghosts, and demons hover about him waking or sleeping: they are the cause of his mishaps, losses, pains. Mountains, woods, forests, rivers, lakes are conceived to possess spirits, i. e., the itch-tchi of the Yakuts, and to be living, thinking, willing, passionful beings like himself. In respect to these, man is in a state of helplessness. The shaman by appropriate words and acts uses his power to shield man and envelops him in a kind of protective armour so that the evil spirits become inactive or inoffensive. His rôle is that of antagonist to the spirits and of guardian to ordinary man. Esquimaux believe all the affairs of life are under the control of malignant spirits who are everywhere. These minor spirits are subject to the great spirit Tung-Ak, yet must be propitiated. The shaman alone is supposed to be able to deal with Tung-Ak, though not superior to him. Tung-Ak is a name for Death, who ever seeks to harass the lives of people that their spirits may go to dwell with him. Ellis says that spirits far from friendly compassed the lives of the Polynesian islanders on every side. The gods of the Maori were demons thronging like mosquitos and ever watchful to inflict evil; their designs could be counteracted only by powerful spells and charms. In Kamchatka every corner of earth and heaven was believed to be full of spirits more dreaded than God. The Navajo, Ojibwas, and Dakotah Indians have a multiplicity of spirits, both evil and good, filling all space, which can be communicated with only after due preparation by the persons who have power to do so, i. e., medé or jossakeed.

(2) The main principle of Shamanism is the attempt to control physical nature. Hence the term embraces the various methods by which the spirits can be brought near or driven away. The belief that the shaman practises this magic art is universal among savages. To this art nothing seems impossible; it intimately affects their conduct and is reflected in their myths. In some cases initiation is required. Thus with the Navajo and Ojibwas they who have successfully passed through the four degrees of the medéwin are called medé, and are considered competent to foresee and prophesy, to cure diseases and to prolong life, to make fetishes, and to aid others in attaining desires not to be realized in any other way. They who have received instruction in one or two degrees usually practise a specialty, e. g., making rain, finding game, curing diseases. For this women are eligible. Again the jossakeed, or jugglers, form a distinct class with no system of initiation, e. g., an individual announces himself a jossakeed and performs feats of magic in substantiation of his claim. Among the Australians the birraark were supposed to be initiated by wandering ghosts. The Dakotahs believe the medicine men to be wakanized (from wakan, i. e., godman) by mystic intercourse with supernatural beings in dreams and trances. Their business was to discern future events, lead on the war-path, raise the storm, calm the tempest, converse with thunder and lightning as with familiar friends. Father Le Jeune writes that the medicine men of the Iroquois enjoyed all the attributes of Zeus. Tiele says that the magical power is possessed by the shaman in common with the higher spirits and does not differ from theirs; in religious observances the magician priests entirely supersede the gods and assume their forms (Science of Religion, II, 108).

Most commonly the shaman is a man. Among the Yakuts, the Carib tribes, and in Northern California there are female as well as male shamans; and in some cases, e. g., the Yakuts, male shamans have to assume women's dress. Every Maori warrior is a shaman. In Samoa there is no regular caste, but in other Polynesian groups the shaman is the exclusive privilege of an hereditary class of nobles. With the Yakuts the

gift of shamanism is not hereditary, but the protecting spirit of a shaman who dies is reincarnated in some member of the same family. To them the protecting spirit is an indispensable attribute of the shaman. They believe that the shaman has an āmāgāt, i. e., a spirit-protector, and an e-kyla, i. e., image of an animal protector, e.g., totemism. Hence the shamans are graded in power according to the ie-kyla, e. g., the weakest have the ie-kyla of a dog, the most powerful that of a bull or an eagle. The amāgāt is a being completely different, and generally is the soul of a dead shaman. Every person has a spiritprotector, but that of the shaman is of a kind apart. With the American Indians the guardian spirit, from whom the novice derives aid, is more generally secured from the hosts of animal spirits; it can also be obtained from the local spirits or spirits of natural phenomena, from the ghosts of the dead or from the greater deities.

In the practice of his art the Shaman is regarded as: (a) A healer, hence the term "medicine man", and the secret medicine societies of the Seneca, and of other American tribes; the Alaskan Tungaks are principally healers. (b) An educator, i. e., the keeper of myth and tradition, of the arts of writing and divination; he is the repository of the tribal wisdom. (c) A civil magistrate; as seers possessing secret knowledge with power at times of assuming other shapes and of employing the souls of the dead, they are credited with ability to detect and punish crimes, e. g., the Angaput wizards among the Esquimaux. In Siberia every tribe has its chief shaman who arranges the rites and takes charge of the idols; under him are local and family wizards who regulate all that concerns birth, marriage, and death, and consecrate dwellings and food. (d) A war-chief; thus with the Dakotahs and Cheyennes the head war-chief must be a medicine man. Hence the shaman possesses great influence and in many cases is the real ruler of the tribe. The means which the shaman uses are: (a) Symbolic magic, on the principle that association in thought must involve similar connexion in reality, e. g., the war and hunting dances of the Red Indians, placing magical fruit-shaped stones in the garden to insure a good crop, to bring about the death of a person by making an image of him and then destroying it or rubbing red paint on the heart of the figure and thrusting a sharp instrument into it. (b) Fasting with solitude and very generally bodily cleanness and incantations usually in some ancient or unmeaning language and with the Yakuts very obscene. Thus the song that salved wounds was known to the Greeks, e. g., the Odyssey, and to the Finns, e. g., the epic poem Kalewala. Among the Indo-Europeans the incantations are known as mantras, and are usually texts from the Vedas chanted over the sick. With the New Zealanders they are called karakias. In ancient Egypt, according to Maspero, the gods had to obey when called by their own name. At Eleusis not the name but the intonation of the voice of the magician produced the mysterious results. In calling on the spirits the shaman imitates the various sounds of objects in nature wherein the spirits are supposed to reside, e. g., the whispering breeze, the whistling and howling storm, the growling bear, the screeching owl. (c) Dances and contortions with use of rattle and drum and a distinctive dress decked with snakes, stripes of fur, little bells. Among the Ojibwas at the sound of the sacred drum every one rises and becomes inspired because the Great Spirit is then present in the lodge. The frenzy and contortions lead to an ecstatic state which is considered of the greatest importance. In South America drugs are used to induce stupor. The spiritual flight in search of information is characteristic of the Siberian shaman; it is rare in America. Vambéry cites a whole series of shamanistic ceremonies, e. g., tambourines and fire-dances,

practised by the ancient sak-uyzur. Shaman incantations are found in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Medes at Suze. Sacrifices, gifts of beads and tobacco, and a few drops of the novice's blood form part of these rites with the American Indians. (d) Possession; thus in Korea the pan-su is supposed to have power over the spirits, because he is possessed by a more powerful demon whose strength he is able to wield. This is also the belief of the Yakuts. (3) Shamanism is closely akin to Fetishism, and at times it is difficult to tell whether the practices in vogue among certain peoples should be referred to the one or to the other. Both spring from Animism; both are systems of savage magic or science and have certain rites in common. Yet the differences consist in the belief that in Fetishism the magic power resides in the instrument or in particular substances and passes into or acts upon the object, whereas in Shamanism the will-effort of the magician is the efficient factor in compelling souls or spirits or gods to do his will or in preventing them from doing their own. Hence in Fetishism the emphasis is laid on the thing, although fasting and incantations may be employed in making the fetish; in Shamanism the prime factor is the will or personality of the magician, although he may employ the like means. Therefore we cannot admit the statement of Peschel who refers to Shamanism everything connected with magic and ritual.

Criticism.-(a) The reasons which prove Animism to be false destroy the basis on which Shamanism rests. (b) Shamanism takes for granted the theory that fear is the origin of religion. De La Saussaye holds that the concept of God cannot arise exclusively from fear produced by certain biological phenomena. Robertson Smith teaches that from the earliest times, religion, distinct from magic and secrecy, addresses itself to kindred and friendly beings, and that it is not with a vague fear of unknown powers but with a loving reverence for known Gods that religion in the true sense of the word began (Religion of the Semites, 2nd ed., p. 54). Ticle says "worship even in its most primitive form always contains an element of veneration" and calls sorcery "a disease of religion" (Science of Religion, II, 136, 141). (c) Shamanism is not a religion. The religious priest beseeches the favour of the gods; the shaman is believed to be able to compel and command them to do his will. Hence de La Saussaye regards Shamanism not as a name for a principal form of religion but for important phenomena and tendencies of Animism.

D'HARLEZ. La religion nationale des Tartares orientaux in Académie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts de Bel

gique, XL (1887); ACHELIS, Abriss der vergleichenden Religionswis senschaft (Leipzig, 1904); TYLOR, Primitive Culture (3rd Amer. ed., New York, 1889) FRAZER, Golden Bough (London, 1900); Jesuit Relations, ed. THWAITES (Cleveland, 1896-1901); MÜLLER, Contributions to the Science of Mythology (London, 1897); LANG, Myth Ritual and Religion (London, 1887); ABERCROMBY, Preand Proto-historic Finns (London, 1898); KEANE, The World's Peoples (New York, 1908); FURLONG, The Faiths of Man (London, 1906); SIEROSZEWSKI in Revue de l'hist, des religions, XLVI; VAN GENNEP in Revue de l'hist. des religions, XLVII; STADLING in Contemporary Review (Jan. 1901); DIXON in Journal of American Folklore (Jan., 1908): American Anthropologist, I, IV. JOHN T. DRISCOLL.

Shammai (called ha-Zēkān, "the Elder"), a famous Jewish scribe who together with Hillel made up the last of "the pairs" (zûgôth), or, as they are sometimes erroneously named, presidents and vice-presidents" of the Sanhedrim. The schools of Shammai and Hillel held rival sway, according to Talmudic tradition (Shabbath 15a), from about a hundred years before the destruction of Jerusalem (A. D. 70). Comparatively little is known about either of the great scribes. The Mischna, the only trustworthy authority in this matter, mentions Shammai in only eight passages (Maaser sheni, II, 4, 9; Orla, II, 5; Eduyoth I, 1-4, 10, II; Aboth, I, 12, 15, V, 17; Kelim, XXII, 4; Nidda, I, 1). He was the very op

posite of Hillel in character and teaching. Stern and severe in living the law to the letter, he was strict to an extreme in legal interpretation. The tale tells that, on the feast of the Tabernacles, his daughter-inlaw gave birth to a child; straightway Shammai had the roof broken through and the bed covered over with boughs, so that the child might celebrate the feast in an improvised sukka (tent or booth) and might not fail of keeping the law of Leviticus (xxiii, 42). The strictness of the master characterises the school of Shammai as opposed to that of Hillel. The difference between the two schools had regard chiefly to the interpretation of the first, second, third and fifth parts of the "Mishna"-i. e. to religious dues, the keeping of the Sabbath and of holy days, the laws in regard to marriage and purification. The law, for example, to prepare no food on the Sabbath had to be observed by not allowing even the beast to toil; hence it was argued that an egg laid on the Sabbath might not be eaten (Eduyoth, iv, 1). Another debate was whether, on a holy day, a ladder might be borne from one dove-cote to another or should only be glided from hole to hole. The need of fringes to a linen night-dress was likewise made a matter of difference between the two schools (Eduyoth, iv, 10). In these and many other discussions we find much straining out of gnats and swallowing of camels (Matt., xxiii, 24), much pain taken to push the Mosaic law to an unbearable extreme, and no heed given to the practical reform which was really needed in Jewish morals. It was the method of the school of Shammai rather than that of Hillel which Christ condemned. On this account non-Catholic scholars generally make Him out to have belonged to the school of Hillel. This opinion has been shared in by a few Catholics (Gigot, "General Introduction to the Study of the Holy Scripture", New York, 1900, p. 422). Most Catholic exegetes, however, refuse to admit that Christ belonged to any of the fallible Jewish schools of interpretation. He established His own school-to wit, the infallible teaching body to which He gave the Old Testament to have and to keep and to interpret to all nations without error. SCHÜRER, The Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, I (Ed inburgh, 1885), 361; GRATZ, Geschichte der Juden, III (3rd ed.,

Berlin, 1875), 671 (tr. Philadelphia, 1873).

WALTER DRUM Shanahan, JOHN W. See HARRISBURG, DIOCESE OF. Shan-si, VICARIATE APOSTOLIC OF NORTHERN.The Faith was carried for the first time into the Province of Shan-si, Northern China, by the Jesuit and Franciscan Fathers during the sixteenth century. At first the province was under the jurisdiction of the bishops of Peking; in 1698 it was erected, with the Province of Shen-si, a vicariate Apostolic by Innocent XII. From 1762 to 1838 the two Provinces of Hu-pe and Hu-nan were added to the same vicariate. On 17 June, 1890, the Vicariate Apostolic of Shan-si was divided into two mis

sions: Northern and Southern Shan-si. In 1900 the notorious Yu-Hien ordered a wholesale massacre of missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, at T'ai

yuan-fu. Gregorio Grassi, vicar Apostolic, his coadjutor Francisco Fogolla, Fathers Facchini, Saccani, Theodoric Balat, Egide, Brother Andrew Baur, seven Franciscan Sisters of Mary, several native priests, and many Christians were massacred. The vicariate Apostolic has 6,000,000 inhabitants. The mission is entrusted to the Franciscan Fathers. The present vicar Apostolic is the Right Rev. Eugene Massi, who resides at T'ai-yuan.

900 pupils; 20 schools for girls, with 200 pupils; 1 asylum for old men, with 118 inmates; 6 orphanages, with 609 inmates; 10 Franciscan Sisters of Mary; 18,200 Catholics; 7302 catechumens. Missiones Catholica (Rome, 1907). V. H. MONTANAR.

Shan-si, VICARIATE APOSTOLIC OF SOUTHERN, erected in 1890; there are about 6,000,000 inhabitants; the mission is entrusted to the Franciscan Fathers. The present vicar Apostolic is the Rt. Rev. Mgr. Oderic Timmer, titular Bishop of Drusipare, born 18 October, 1859, consecrated 20 July, 1901. He resides at Lu-an-fu. In 1903 the mission numbered: 21 European Franciscan Fathers; 5 native priests; 10,300 Catholics; 9,200 catechumens; 94 churches and chapels. In 1910 there were: 24 European Franciscan Fathers; 6 native priests; 15,003 Catholics; 9,230 catechumens; 183 churches and chapels Missiones Catholica (Rome, 1907). V. H. MONTANAR.

Shan-tung, VICARIATE APOSTOLIC OF EASTERN. -This mission was separated in 1894 from Northern Shan-Tung and erected into a vicariate Apostolic. It includes the three civil Prefectures of Yen-Chu-Fu, Lai-Chu-Fu, and Teng-Chu-Fu. There are about 10,000,000 inhabitants. The climate is very healthy. On Nov., 1897, two German missionaries, Fathers Francis Xavier Nies and Richard Henle, were attacked and massacred in the village of Chang-KiaChwang. This double murder led to the occupation of Kiao-Chau on 14 Nov., 1897, by the German fleet. In 1899 the territory occupied by the German Government was separated from Eastern Shan-Tung and confided to the mission of Southern Shan-Tung. The Vicariate Apostolic of Eastern Shan-Tung is entrusted to the Franciscan Fathers. The actual vicar Apostolic is Rt. Rev. Mgr. Cæsarius Schang, titular Bishop of Vaga, b. 3 July, 1835, appointed 22 May 1894. He resides at Che-Fu. In 1904 the mission had: 16 European Franciscan Fathers; 3 native priests; 9400 Catholics; 10,500 catechumens; and 145 churches and chapels. In 1909 there were: 17 European Franciscan Fathers; 2 European secular priests; 3 native priests; 9900 Catholics; 11,700 catechumens; 13 churches; 138 chapels; 350 stations; 1 seminary with 5 students; 1 preparatory seminary, with 27 students; 30 schools for boys, with 622 pupils; 24 schools for girls, with 435 pupils; 2 colleges for boys, with 140 students; 1 college for girls, with 25 students; 2 industrial schools, with 154 pupils; 3 hospitals; 3 orphanages, with 195 orphans; 30 sisters of the Franciscan Missionaries of Mary."

Missiones Catholica (Rome, 1907). V. H. MONTANAR.

Shan-tung, VICARIATE APOStolic of NorthERN, Apostolic was Louis de Besi, formerly Pro-Vicar of erected by Gregory XVI in 1839. The first vicar Hu-pe and Hu-nan. This vicariate Apostolic had to undergo many wars and persecutions. In 1885 it was divided into Northern and Southern Shan-tung; in 1894, the Vicariate Apostolic of Eastern Shan-tung Shan-tung enjoys a salubrious and temperate climate; was erected. The Vicariate Apostolic of Northern it numbers 11,000,000 inhabitants, and is entrusted to

the Franciscan Fathers. The present vicar Apostolic is the Rt. Rev. Mgr. Ephrem Giesen, titular Bishop of 1902. He resides at Tsi-nan-fu. Paltus, born 16 October, 1868, consecrated 8 July, In 1904 the mis

sion numbered: 11 European Franciscan Fathers; 18 native priests; 18,000 Catholics; 13,900 catechumens: and 134 churches and chapels. In 1910 there were: 29 European Franciscan Fathers; 19 native priests; 28,000 Catholics; 20,000 catechumens; 187 churches and chapels.