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IRDS OF PARADISE, or PARADISÆIDÆ, a family of birds of New Guinea, northern Australia, and the neighboring islands, which contains a large number of species, notable for splendid plumage, although they are nearly allied to the plainly dressed crows. The name "bird of paradise" is a translation of the native name in the island of Batchian, "manukdewata," meaning birds of the gods. About 50 species of these birds are known, varying in size from that of a crow to that of a sparrow; all are forest birds, spending their lives in the tree-tops, where many of them go about in small flocks, active and noisy, but are inclined to hide themselves in the thickest foliage, as though aware that their plumage rendered them easily conspicuous to their enemies. None are singers, and in most cases the voice is a loud, harsh cry, or a sharp whistle, or in some species, strange mewing notes. It is related that on some of the islands certain species were called "birds of the sun," because of their habit of joining in loud choruses at sunrise. Their diet consists mainly of fruit, and especially of berries and seeds; the fig and the nutmeg are especially eaten, and some species suck honey from the large tropical flowers. Insects are captured by all species, as also are the numerous snails inhabiting the trees and bushes of that region, and the larger forms devour frogs and lizards. In pursuit of insects, worms and snails, several species spend much of their time scrambling about the trunks of trees and searching the bark, like creepers. The breeding habits of these birds vary extensively, and the nests and eggs of many have not yet been discovered. The typical paradisebirds construct rather loose, careless platforms of sticks and leaves, moss, etc., placed in trees or bushes, and lay eggs which are much streaked and spotted, and vary in color and patterns. The very extraordinary nests and play-grounds of that section of the family which is terrestrial, and inhabits Australia, are described under bower-birds (q.v.). Many recent authorities place these in a distinct family, the Ptilenorhyncidæ.

Interest in the birds of paradise centres in their marvelous displays of plumage. These are exhibited in most species by the male alone, the female being comparatively plain and simple in her attire, as also are the young of both sexes, until the young males arrive at maturity.

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This dissimilarity between the females and males of birds, of which the latter are highly adorned, is a protective arrangement, designed to keep the females from observation while they are sitting defenseless upon their nests, where they would easily be discovered, and often killed, did they wear the conspicuous colors and ornaments of their brilliant mates. Natural selection, by keeping their colors, and those of the inexperienced and comparatively helpless young ones plain, has tended to preserve the species; and at the time when the females are brooding their mates remain at a discreet distance from the nests, so as not to betray their position to the monkeys, lemurs, civets, serpents and other searchers for eggs and fledglings. The same influence, acting through sexual selection (q.v.), has developed in the males the bright colors and eccentric adornments which distinguish this group of birds as a means of increasing their attractiveness in the eyes of the females. The theory is that the most beautiful male will be chosen first as a mate, and will transmit to its offspring its tendency toward ornamentation or high color,' and that thus, by constant rivalry between the males, the excessive ornamentation in this group has slowly arisen. A justification for this view is found in the fact that in the courting season, which occurs at the opening of the rainy season, numbers of males of each species gather in certain spots, sometimes on the ground, but more usually on the limbs of the forest trees, and go through a great variety of movements and strange antics, lifting their wings, spreading their tails, erecting their crests and apparently doing everything in their power to display their finery in the eyes of the females, and thus solicit them to make a choice. Natives call these assemblages, which usually occur at sunrise, and always in the same place, "dancing parties," and it is during this time that they secure specimens for the trade, by shooting them from ambush with blunt arrows. So persistent has been the demand for their skins and feathers, chiefly for millinery purposes, that many of the species have been nearly exterminated. This may easily occur from the fact that the range of most of the birds of paradise is very limited, several species being confined to a single island. Their increase, too, is slow, as most of them lay only two or three eggs, a condition which has arisen from the fact that their natural enemies are comparatively few. They have

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occasionally been captured alive, and kept for a time in captivity, even in the zoological gardens of Europe, but they do not thrive in confinement. The best-known of the birds of paradise is the great emerald paradise bird (Paradisea apoda) of the Moluccas which was brought to Europe first in 1523, by the members of Magellan's company, on their return from the first circumnavigation of the world. They brought two dead specimens which had been given to them in the island of Batchian as a mark of royal favor. From these skins the natives, as was their custom, had cut off both the wings and the feet; and this gave rise to the absurd stores of the early books, that the paradisebirds were naturally footless and wingless, never perched, suspended themselves by the tail-feathers, etc. It was also said that they gazed perpetually at the sun, and that the hen laid her eggs on the back of her spouse. This species is as large as a crow. The male is rich brown, becoming purplish beneath; the head and neck are pale yellow, the forehead, cheeks and throat metallic green. From the sides of the body, beneath the wings, spring thick tufts of delicate, loosely-webbed, golden-orange feathers, which, when the wings are lifted, may be lifted and spread out so as to seem to fall like a shower over the whole bird; and the two middle tail-feathers are like long wires each with a very slight flag-like web at the tip. It would be impossible to describe at length the great variety and splendor of the plumage of these eccentrically ornate birds, only a few of which may be further alluded to. In the red bird of paradise (Paradisea sanguinea) the plumage is like velvet in a variety of gorgeous colors, and the tufts in the sides are rich crimson, while the elegantly curling central tailshafts are 21 inches in length. A genus of New Guinea (Cincinnurus) includes a number of species, only about six inches long, called the king birds of paradise, which are distinguished by large tufts of fan-like plumes on each side of the breast. Another genus (Parotia) has as its especial ornament a group of three long feathers springing from behind each eye, which are in the form of metallic wires, with a racket-like web at the end that may be erected and moved about as the bird wishes. Otherwise the plumage is black, except for some vivid steel-green and white feathers about the head. Some species have a distinct shield of metallic, scale-like feathers upon the back or upon the breast, which may be glossy blue, or green, or violet, or glowing scarlet, or a mixture of these. The acme of this strange and gorgeous development in plumage seems to be attained by the "superb bird of paradise (Lophorhina superba), which is characterized by the presence of an enormous erectile forked shield of velvety black feathers arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and apparently incongruous is this shield, that it might suggest to the beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it not that its feathers are of a different type. The groundcolor of the plumage is of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck; while the feathers of the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield composed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form, along each

side, and is emarginate in the middle, In color, this is bluish-green, with a satiny sheen; the back shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with reflections of bronze and purple, its outermost feathers exceeding the primaries of the wing in length. The natives say that the enormous crest, when displayed during the courtship of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out, in a fan-like manner, while the chest shield is similarly expanded. Hence the head of the bird forms a circle of irregular feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front.

The name, "bird of paradise," has also been applied to Miluvius forcatus, the "scissor-tail" of Central America, Mexico and some of the Southern States.

General information as to the birds of paradise will be found in books of East Indian travel, especially in The Malay Archipelago' (1869), by Alfred Russell Wallace, the first naturalist to study these birds attentively in their native haunts. As early as 1873, Daniel Elliot completed a magnificent monograph of the family illustrated with colored folio plates, and in 1881 was published a second monograph, by Salvatori, as a part of his general work on the ornithology of the Papuan region. Still more recently German naturalists have increased our knowledge of this family by many papers in German scientific periodicals, which have been utilized by Rothschild in the preparation of his account of these birds in 'Das Tierreich) (Berlin 1898). The most recent sketches are those of the Royal Natural History' (London 1895), and Evans, 'Birds' (London 1900). See also an article by A. Menegaux in the Revue Française d'Ornithologie, Year V, No. 48.

BIRDS OF PREY. This group is a survival of the old-fashioned classification of animals by resemblances in appearance and function, rather than in structure. Broadly speaking, a bird of prey is merely one which subsists by attacking and devouring living creatures, and hence the name covers such birds as skuas, frigate-birds, shrikes and fishcatching birds, as well as the eagles, hawks and owls, to which it is restricted by popular usage. In all these cases the adaptations are for a predatory life, especially marked in the strong seizing talons of the hawks and owls, and in their hooked, sharp-edged beaks, suitable for tearing and cutting, along with which go suitable modifications of the digestive organs, characteristic of the accipiters. These adaptations bear a curious, yet natural, likeness to the claws, teeth, etc., of carnivorous mammals and reptiles.

BIRDSBORO, Pa., borough of Berks County, 10 miles southeast of Reading, on the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia and Reading railroads. Its industries comprise extensive foundries and machine shops. Pop. 2,930.

BIRDWOOD, SIR George (CHRISTOPHER MOLESWORTH), English scientist: b. Belgaum, Bombay, 8 Dec. 1832; d. 27 June 1907. He was graduated at Edinburgh University, joined the Bombay medical staff in 1854, served in the Persian Expedition of 1856-57, and was sometime professor in the Grant Medical College, Bombay. He also acted as a commissioner at

important exhibitions after 1851. He was author of 'Economic Vegetable Products of the Bombay Presidency' (1868); of numerous reports on botanical subjects, and of introductions to various historical and other works on India.

BIRDWOOD, Herbert Mills, English lawyer: b. Belgaum, Bombay Presidency, 29 May 1837; d. about 1908. He was educated at Edinburgh University, and was dean of arts (1868, 1881, 1888, 1890) and syndic of the Bombay University, and vice-chancellor 189192. He entered the Bombay civil service 1858; was made assistant collector and magistrate 1859; assistant judge 1862; under secretary to the government, judicial, political and educational departments, and secretary of the legislative council 1863; acting registrar of the High Court, Bombay 1867; district judge for Ratnagiri, Surat and Thana, 1871-80; judicial commissioner and judge of the Sadar Court, Sind 1881; three times acting judge of the High Court, Bombay 1881-85; puisne judge of the High Court of Bombay 1885-92; and member of the executive council of the governor of Bombay 1892-97. His publications include 'Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran and Mahableshwar'; 'Catalogue of Bills Introduced into the Bombay Legislative Council in 1862-65'; and papers relating to the constitution of the council, the plague in Bombay, etc.

BIREME (Lat. bi+remus, two oar), a Roman ship of war with two banks of oars. It was inferior in magnitude and strength to the trireme.

BIREN, be-ron, or BIRON, Ernest John von (DUKE OF COURLAND), Russian statesman (grandson of a groom of James, Duke of Courland, and the son of a Courland proprietor of the name of Bühren): b. 1687; d. 28 Dec. 1772. He studied at Königsberg, secured the favor of Anna Ivanovna, Duchess of Courland, and niece of Peter the Great of Russia; but he was unsuccessful in his attempt to obtain admission among the Courland nobility. When, in 1730, Anna ascended the Russian throne, Biren was loaded by her with honors and introduced at the Russian court. Here he assumed the name and arms of the dukes of Biron in France. Fierce and haughty by nature, he indulged his hatred against the rivals of his ambition. The princes Dolgorucky were his first victims. He caused 11,000 persons to be put to death and double that number to be exiled. It is said that the Empress often threw herself at his feet to induce him to lay aside his severity, but that neither her entreaties nor her tears were able to move him. The firmness of his character, however, introduced vigor and activity into all branches of the administration throughout the empire. In 1737 Anna forced the Courlanders to choose her favorite (who had in 1722 married a Courland lady) for their duke. After declaring Prince Ivan her successor, she appointed Biren regent. Anna died 28 Oct. 1740. The new regent acted with prudence and moderation. But a secret conspiracy was soon formed against him. Field-Marshal Münnich caused him to be arrested in his bed during the night of 19 Nov. 1740 and to be confined in the castle of Schlüsselburg. He was subjected to a trial; but the sentence of

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death was changed into that of imprisonment for life and his fortune was declared confiscated. Together with his family he was transported to Pelym, in Siberia, and thrown into a prison, of which Münnich himself had furnished the plan. In the following year Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, being raised to the Russian throne by a new revolution, Biren was recalled 20 Dec. 1741, and Münnich was obliged to occupy his prison. At Kasan the sledges met; the travelers recognized each other and proceeded on their way without interchanging a word. Biren was detained at Jaroslav and only received his full liberty in 1762 from Peter III. When Catherine II ascended the throne the duchy of Courland was restored to Biren in 1763. He governed with wisdom and lenity, transferring the government to his eldest son, Peter. Consult Halem, 'Lebensbeschreibung des russischen GeneralFeld-marschalls Münnich' (Oldenburg 1803); Rambaud, Russia' (Vol. II); Rambaud and Lavisse, Histoire générale (Paris 1893-1901); Ruehl, Geschichte E. J. von Birons' (1764) 'Les antiquités russes (Moscow 1884); and 'Lettres d'Anna Ivanovna (in L'Archive

Russe, Vols. II and III, Moscow 1873-77).

BIRETTA, a cap worn by ecclesiastics, especially those of the Catholic Church, and by ritualistic clergymen of the Anglican and Episcopal churches. It is of considerable antiquity, though it has varied in shape and material at different times. It is at present a stiff-sided, square-shaped cap with sharp edges, a flattened top surmounted by ridges rising above it, having in the centre a sort of tuft or tassel. It is made of cloth or stuff, the color being black for priests, purple or violet for bishops and scarlet for cardinals. See VESTMENTS.

BIRGE, Edward Asahel, American naturalist: b. Troy, N. Y., 7 Sept. 1851. He was graduated at Williams College 1873; studied physiology and histology at Leipzig 1880-81; became instructor of natural history in the University of Wisconsin 1875; professor of zoology 1879-1911; dean of the College of Letters and Science in 1891; and acting president of the university 1900-03. In 1897 he became director of the Geological and Natural History Survey of Wisconsin and was a member of the State Forestry Commission 1905-15 and of the Conservation Commission 1908-15. He has written many articles and papers on zool

ogy.

BIRGE, Henry Warner, American soldier: b. Hartford, Conn., 25 Aug. 1825; d. New York, 1 June 1888. At the outbreak of the Civil War he organized the 4th regiment Connecticut Volunteers and was commissioned its major. In November 1861 his uncle, Governor Buckingham of Connecticut, appointed him colonel of the 13th Connecticut Volunteers, which joined Butler's army at New Orleans. He took part in the siege of Vicksburg and the first Red River campaign; commanded a division in Grant's Virginia campaign; and was with Sheridan in the latter's most brilliant movements in the Shenandoah Valley. In November 1865 he resigned with the rank of brevet major-general.

BIRGER, bir'ger, OF BJÄLBO, Swedish regent, sometimes called "the nameless king."

He lived in the early part of the 13th century and was regent during the minority of his son, Waldemar, who succeeded Eric XI. He was the first to introduce Christianity into Finland where he extended the territories of Sweden. He was the founder of the city of Stockholm and established trade relations between the kingdom and Hamburg.

BIRINUS, Saint, bishop of Dorchester, Oxfordshire: d. 650. He was a Benedictine monk, sent by Pope Honorius to visit Britain, where he arrived in 634. Preaching to the heathen West Saxons, he succeeded in converting them to Christianity and baptized the King of Wessex, Cynegils. The see of Dorchester was founded and he became the first bishop. He built and consecrated a number of churches (according to Bede) and many peoples "were called to the Lord by his pious labors." Birinus was buried at Dorchester in 650, but in 680 the remains were removed to Winchester. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle' refers to several princes baptized by Birinus and to his earnest endeavors as a missionary.

BIRKBECK, George, originator of mechanics' institutes: b. Settle, Yorkshire, 10 Jan. 1776; d. 1 Dec. 1841. He studied medicine in Edinburgh and took the degree of M.D. in 1799, among his friends and fellow students being Brougham and Jeffrey. He was appointed to the chair of natural and experimental philosophy in the Andersonian University at Glasgow, in 1799. The following year he began to give gratuitous lectures to mechanics, which were soon largely attended. This was the first attempt to establish mechanics' institutes, and to Dr. Birkbeck the honor of being their founder belongs. The Glasgow Mechanics' Institution, though not established till 1823, owed its origin to these lectures delivered by him. In 1804 he settled as a physician in London, and was soon engaged in an extensive practice; but the extension of scientific knowledge to working men was ever in his thoughts, and in 1824 he had the happiness of being elected president of the London Mechanics' Institution, for which that at Glasgow had led the way. Similar institutions soon arose and prospered in all the large towns of the kingdom. Dr. Birkbeck was also connected with the founding of University College, London, and advocated the repeal of the tax on newspapers. The London Mechanics' Institute still exists, but it is now known as the Birkbeck Literary and Scientific Institution.

BIRKENHEAD, England, a parliamentary, county and municipal borough of Cheshire, on the estuary of the Mersey, opposite Liverpool. Its growth has been rapid. It owes its prosperity to the same causes that have made Liverpool a great seaport, and may be regarded as a suburb of that city. Its docks have an area of 173 acres and a lineal quay space of over nine miles, with a complete system of railway communication for the shipment of goods and direct coaling of steamers. The system of drainage and sewerage is very complete. There is a theological college of the Church of England (Saint Aidan's); a free public library, schools of art, etc. The ruins of an ancient Benedictine priory founded in 1153 still exist in a good state of preservation.

The ferry privileges were formerly vested in the monks of this priory. It has a large public park of 114 acres beautifully laid out. Its magnificent docks and dock warehouses, however, which belong to the splendid Liverpool system, form the distinguishing feature of Birkenhead, The Mersey tunnel, four and one-half miles long, including the approaches, 21 feet high and 26 feet wide, and which cost $6,100,000, now connects Liverpool with Birkenhead. Communication with Liverpool is also kept up by steam ferries, the property of the corporation, which yield a handsome revenue. The corporation also owns the gas, water and electric-lighting plants, and the tramway lines, which, introduced here by George Francis Train, were one of the earliest systems in Great Britain. The water supply, which is abundant and of excellent quality, is obtained within the borough by pumping from the red sandstone strata which underlie it. Birkenhead has gained a distinguished name for shipbuilding, the extensive yards of Laird Brothers (builders of the famous Confederate ship Alabama) being located here. There are machine and engineering works, and an extensive trade in coal, cattle, sheep and grain. Birkenhead has returned a member of Parliament since 1861. Pop. 130,794.

("lake of the

BIRKET-EL-KEROON horn"), Egypt, is a lake in the Fayoom, about 30 miles long and 6 miles wide. It communicates with the Nile and had connection formerly with the artificial Lake Moris, with which it has been confounded. See EGYPT — TOPOGRAPHY.

BIRKETT, Herbert Stanley, Canadian physician: b. Hamilton, Ontario, 17 July 1864. He graduated at McGill University in 1886; was senior house surgeon to the Montreal General Hospital 1886-87; assistant physician to the Montreal Dispensary 1887-89; laryngologist to Montreal Dispensary 1889-91, and to the General Hospital 1891-99; demonstrator of anatomy at McGill University 1890–1906; professor of laryngology and otology since 1895 and dean of the medical faculty at McGill University. He is the author of numerous medical works.

BIRKNER, Ferdinand, German anthropologist: b. Munich, 28 Dec. 1868. He was educated at the Wilhelms-Gymnasium and the university of his native city. He has made a special study of the natural sciences, particularly anthropology, and is now extraordinary professor of anthropology in the University of Munich and royal custodian of the state Anthropologico-Prehistoric Collection, Munich. He is also secretary of the Anthropological Society of Munich and member of the Imperial Leopold-Charles Academy of Naturalists and corresponding member of the Pontificia Academia Romana dei Nuovi Lincei. He has published 'Beiträge zur Anthropologie der Hand' (Munich 1895); 'Beiträge zur Rassenanatomie der Chinesen' (ib. 1904); 'Der diluviale Mensch in Europa' (ib. 1910); 'Rassen und Völker der Menschheit,' in collaboration with Wilhelm Schmidt (1911). He is a contributor to Archiv für Anthropologie Korrespondenzblatt der Deutschen Anthropologischen Gesellschaft, Natur und Kultur, etc.

BIRMINGHAM, Ala., "the Pittsburgh of the South," the industrial head of the entire South between Atlanta and New Orleans, and the chief centre of the iron and coal industry south of Pennsylvania; county-seat of Jefferson County, in the northern centre, is situated midway between the Coosa and Black Warrior rivers, 608 to 1,000 feet above the sea, in a valley, near where the last Appalachian spurs sink to the coast plain, 96 miles north of Montgomery, the State capital, and 168 miles west of Atlanta. Nine railroad systems radiate from Birmingham to every section of the country; the Alabama Great Southern, Seaboard Air Line, Central of Georgia, Illinois Central, Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic, Southern, Frisco, Louisville and Nashville and Mobile and Ohio. Located in the heart of the greatest coal, iron and limestone district of the South, around it lie three huge coal fields, the Warrior, Cahaba and Coosa, aggregating over 8,610 square miles, with some 60 seams, more than half of them workable; the nearest deposits being only four miles from the city, and all of them having an estimated available supply in 1911 of 68,572,000,000 tons. Birmingham is built partly upon the slope of Red Mountain, named from its outcrop of hematite iron ore, which extends many miles in every direction from the city, in a vein from 6 to 26 feet thick with an indefinite depth. This district produced in 1915 about 95 per cent of the State's production of 17,884,745 tons of coal, 3,526,624 tons of coke and 2,025,378 tons of pig iron. In 1915 1,121,618 freight cars were hauled in and out of Birmingham, carrying 70 per cent. of the entire tonnage of Alabama, and also hauling more than 1,000,000 tons of limestone. This ideal equipment for the production of iron and steel at the lowest cost is building up a great city with such rapidity that no statistics can be other than temporary. After the census of 1904, Birmingham extended its corporate limits to six times the former area; that is, from 4,270 acres to 30,881 acres. Populous suburbs were added in which are manufacturing establishments.

Business Establishments, etc.- There are in Jefferson County more than 300 mining and manufacturing plants of various kinds, among which are 27 blast furnaces, 7,168 coke ovens, 60 coal mines, a large number of mines and stone quarries, two steel plants, three rolling mills, a wire rod and nail mill, a steel rail mill, besides other plants of various kinds. In 1912, 255 new companies were organized, with a capital of $6,068,300, and existing corporations increased their capital stock $4,213,900 and made extensions to their plants costing several millions. In 1909, according to the Federal census, the city of Birmingham alone had 248 manufacturing establishments of the factory system grade, which were operated on a capital of $23,718,147, employed 10,150 wage earners, paid for wages $4,392,476, for materials used in process $14,009,700, and for all expenses $21,549,129, and had products aggregating $24,128,214 in value, nearly one-sixth of the total for the State. These figures showed an increase in 10 years of 139 establishments, $19,404,000 in capital, $3,003,500 in wages, $10,000,000 in cost of materials and $15,530,000 in value of prod

ucts.

The Birmingham district contains over

50 blast furnaces and more than half of all the iron smelters in the State: and smelting 2,500 tons of iron daily, it became fourth in production of iron in the world in 1908. Ten years before, Birmingham was already furnishing sixsevenths of the total United States' export of pig iron, but since then none of the product has been exported on account of the increased home demand. The maximum production of iron ore, pig iron, coal and coke was made in 1910, when the output of iron ore was 4,801,275 long tons; pig iron, 1,969,770 long tons; coal, 16,111,462 short tons, and coke, 3,249,027 short tons; the entire output having a value of $59,614,012. The first steel plant in the South was started in 1897 at Birmingham, two openhearth furnaces of 160 tons a day; now the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company has in operation at Ensley, a suburb, 10 furnaces and a 44-inch blowing mill, capacity 1,000 tons a day. This is the largest basic openhearth plant in the world except the Carnegie works at Homestead. There is a casting plant and rail mill in connection with it. The Alabama Steel and Shipbuilding Company began in 1899 with $1,000,000 capital, and the Alabama Steel and Wire Company with $2,000,000 capital. In recent years, owing to the superior quality of the basic over the Bessemer steel, the demand of the country has been for basic rather than Bessemer steel rails. This change resulted in a production of basic rails in 1911 nine times larger than that of 1905, and of Bessemer rails less than one-third as large. Besides the plants already mentioned, Birmingham has a steel casting plant, a bi-product plant, a wrought pipe plant, cast pipe and foundry plants, pipe fittings plant, soil pipe plants, clay pipe plant, cement factories, chemical works, fertilizer factories, corn mill, flour mill, ice factories, gas and gasoline engine works, iron and steel bridge works, boiler works, foundries and machine shops, stove foundry, railroad shops, sash factories, wagon factories, agricultural implement works, printing and bookbinding concerns, hollow ware plant, brick plants, planing mills and wood working plants, packing company, etc. Birmingham is the second largest yellow pine market in the South and is also a cotton market, the cotton receipts annually exceeding 125,000 bales. It has cotton factories, cotton seed oil mills and knitting factories. Besides the unparalleled cheapness of material, its transportation facilities have been greatly increased by the government improvements on the Warrior and Tombigbee rivers, by which coal and other products are transported to tide water at Mobile, thence to the Atlantic seaboard at greatly reduced cost. In 1913 Birmingham produced 17,884,745 tons of coal, 3,526,624 tons of coke, 2,025,378 tons of iron and 778,390 tons of steel. Its bank deposits amounted to $28,883,316, its bank clearings to $173,857,772.

Public Institutions, etc.- Birmingham is a handsome and solidly built city with wide avenues, handsome dwellings and imposing public buildings. It has a large government building, county court-house, new city hall, "skyscraper" business houses, a fine public library, high schools and other educational buildings and numerous handsome churches. Among other notable buildings are the Jefferson Thea