ticular distinction at the battles of Yorktown and Williamsburg. He subsequently distinguished himself at the second battle of Bull Run and in the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. He was in command of the 3d Army Corps during a part of the battle of Gettysburg; from May to June 1864 was in command of a division under General Hancock; and from July 1864 commanded the 10th Corps of the Army of the James.

BIRNEY, James Gillespie, American politician: b. Danville, Ky., 4 Feb. 1792; d. Perth Amboy, N. J., 25 Nov. 1857. He studied law, and removed early to Alabama, where he prospered in his profession and held the office of district attorney. Having had his attention turned toward the question of property in slaves, in 1833 he interested himself in the organization of a branch of the Colonization Society for the State of Alabama. Soon afterward, returning to Kentucky, he organized one there also, of which he became president. But in 1834, his views rapidly advancing, he espoused the cause of immediate emancipation in a public letter, at the same time emancipating all his own slaves, about 20 in number. This letter, the 'Letter on Colonization' (1834), was shortly afterward followed by American Churches the Bulwarks of American Slavery (1840); Speeches in England' (1840); and Examination of the Decision of the United States Supreme Court in the Case of Stroder et al. vs. Graham) (1850). Making arrangements to establish a newspaper to disseminate these views at Danville, where he resided, and where he held the situation of professor in the university, he found it impossible to have such a paper printed in Kentucky, and removed to Cincinnati, where he began to issue the Philanthropist. It had not been long published before it was found no less obnoxious to public sentiment in Ohio than it had been in Kentucky, and the press was thrown into the river. The editor, however, managed to revive the paper, and, in connection with Dr. Bailey, made it a powerful instrument in acting upon the opinion of the State. About the year 1836 he went to New York as secretary of the American AntiSlavery Society, and for many years devoted his time and strength to the furtherance of the objects of that Society by letters and articles from the press and by public addresses wherever he could make an opportunity to be heard. His purpose was to build up a political party upon the single question of slavery, to act upon the government within the forms of the Constitution; and he succeeded in forming an organization in most of the Northern States, under the name of the Liberty Party. During his absence in England he was nominated in 1840 by that party for the presidency, but met with little success. He was again nominated in 1844, when he received more votes. It was charged upon his friends at the time that by withdrawing their votes from Mr. Clay, especially in the State of New York, they accomplished the election of Mr. Polk, thus aiming the death-blow at their own projects. Previous to this, in 1842, Mr. Birney had become a resident of Michigan, where not long afterward he was disabled, by a fall from his horse, from taking the active part in politics to which he had been accustomed. The latter part of his

life was spent at Perth Amboy, N. J. Consult the biography by his son, William Birney, James G. Birney and His Times' (New York 1890).

BIRNEY, William, American lawyer: b. Madison County, Ala., 28 May 1819; d. Washington, D. C., 14 Aug. 1907. He was educated in Paris; took part in the Revolution of 1848, and was appointed professor of English literature in the college at Bourges, France. In 1861 he entered the United States army as a private, and was promoted through all the grades to brevet major-general. He drilled the colored troops, and freed the inmates of all the slave prisons in Baltimore. In 1863-65 he commanded a division. In 1874 he moved to Washington, D. C., where he became attorney for the District of Columbia. His writings include 'Life and Times of James G. Birney,' 'Plea for Civil and Religious Liberty,' etc.

BIRON, be-ron, Baron de (ARMAND DE GONTAUT, dé gon-tō), French soldier: b. 1524; d. 1592. He took a prominent part in the civil wars between the Huguenots and Catholics, and served at the battles of Dreux, Saint Denis and Moncontour. He was made marshal of France in 1577 by Henry III. He negotiated the peace of Saint Germain, and narrowly escaped the massacre of Saint Bartholomew. He recovered Guienne and Languedoc from the Protestants, served in the Netherlands against the Duke of Parma, and was one of the first to recognize Henry IV as King. He distinguished himself in various battles and was killed at the siege of Epernay.

BIRON, Duc de (CHARLES DE GONTAUT), French soldier, son of the preceding: b. about 1562; d. 31 July 1602. He served Henry IV in the field with much zeal and courage, was raised to the rank of admiral of France in 1592, and in 1598 was made a peer and duke. He thought himself, however, not sufficiently rewarded, and began to intrigue with the Spanish party against the King. In 1599 he concluded an agreement with the Duke of Savoy and the Count of Fuentes, by which he pledged himself to take up arms against his benefactor. Meanwhile, war being declared against the Duke of Savoy (1600), Biron saw himself reduced to the necessity of attacking him. He still continued his negotiations with the enemy, however, and at last they became known to the King, who interrogated the marshal as to his designs, with promises of pardon. Biron made a partial confession and continued his intrigues as before. Notwithstanding this, Henry sent him in 1601, after the conclusion of peace with Savoy, as envoy to Queen Elizabeth of England. In the meantime the Count of Fuentes discovered the whole plot. He was tried before Parliament, and was beheaded.

BIRON, Ernest John. See BIREN.

BIRRELL, Augustine, English essayist and statesman: b. Wavertree, near Liverpool, 19 Jan. 1850. He was graduated at Cambridge and was called to the bar. In 1903 he became a Bencher of the Inner Temple; from 1896-99 was Quain professor of law in University College, London; from 1889–1900 represented Fifeshire W. in Parliament, and since 1906 North Bristol. He is author of charming critical and biographical essays on literary subjects, col

lected in the two series of Obiter Dicta' (1884; 2d series, 1887) and Res Judicatæ (1892); Men, Women and Books (1895). In 1887 he published a 'Life of Charlotte Brontë; in 1897 edited Boswell's 'Life of Johnson'; in 1898 published 'Life of Sir Frank Lockwood';

"Copyright in Books (1899); Collected Essays (1900); Miscellanies' (1901); William Hazlitt (1902); Andrew Marvell'; 'In the Name of the Bodleian' (1905). In 1905 he became president of the Board of Education in the Liberal Cabinet and from 1907-16 was Chief Secretary for Ireland. His occupancy of the latter post was brought to a sudden termination. Coincidentally with the capture of Sir Roger Casement (q.v.), who had landed from a German submarine on the coast of Kerry on 21 April 1916, a rebellion broke out on 24 April in Dublin, organized by the Sinn-Feiners, the ultraRadical, physical-force section of the Irish Nationalists, and simultaneously movements of the same kind took place in other centres, mainly in the west and southwest. On the suppression of these outbreaks Mr. Birrell at once resigned (3 May), the lead the rebels were enabled to make being generally attributed to the supineness of the Irish Office.

BIRT, Henry Norbert, English Benedictine monk and author: b. Valparaiso, Chile, 1861. He was educated at London University College School; entered the Benedictine order in 1880; taught in Downside School 1884-92, and was ordained in 1889. He was assistant at Coventry 1892-95, and chaplain at Heckfield and Ealing. He was acting chaplain to the forces during the South African War, receiving medal with four clasps. In the European War he again served as chaplain after 1915. Since 1904 he has been official secretary to the president of the English Benedictines. He has done much literary research work, visited Germany as one of the Catholic representatives of British Christian Churches in 1909, and is the author of an abridgment of Lingard's 'History of England'; History of Downside School'; 'Elizabethan Settlement of Religion'; 'The Line of Cleavage under Elizabeth; Benedictine Pioneers in Australia' (2 vols.); 'Obit Book of the English Benedictines.' He is a contributor to the Tablet, the Downside Review and the Catholic Encyclopædia.

BIRTH, or LABOR, in physiology, is the act by which a female of the class Mammalia brings one of her own species into the world. When the foetus has remained its due time in the womb, and is in a condition to carry on a separate existence, it is extruded from its place of confinement, in order to live the life which belongs to its species independently of the mother. The womb having reached its maximum of growth with the increasing size of the foetus, its peculiar irritability excites in it the power of contraction; it thereby narrows the space within and pushes out the mature foetus. The period of gestation is very different in different animals, but in each particular species it is fixed with much precision. In the womb the corporeal frame of man commences existence as an embryo; after further development, appears as a foetus; then as an immature, and finally a mature, child. With its growth and increasing size the membranes which envelop it enlarge, the womb also ex

BIRTH

panding to give room for it. At the end of the 39th or the beginning of the 40th week the child has reached its perfect state and is capable of living separate from the mother; hence follows in course its separation from her, that is, the birth.

Contractions of the womb gradually come on, which are called, from the painful sensations accompanying them, labor-pains. These are of two kinds: first, the preliminary pangs, which begin the labor, do not last long, are not violent and produce the feeling of a disagreeable straining or pressure. When the pregnant female is involved in these she is often unable to move from her place till the pang is over, after which she is often free from pain for some hours. Then follow the true labor-pains; these always last longer, return sooner and are more violent. The contractions of the womb take place in the same order as the enlargement had previously done, the upper part of it first contracting, while the mouth of the womb enlarges and grows thin, and the vagina becomes loose and distensible. By this means the fœtus, as the space within the womb is gradually narrowed, descends with a turning motion toward the opening; the fluid contained in the membranes enveloping the fœtus, as the part making the greatest resistance, is forced out, and forms a bladder, which contributes much to the gradual enlargement of the opening of the womb. It is therefore injurious to delivery if hasty or ignorant midwives break the membranes too soon. By repeated and violent throes the membranes at length burst and discharge their contents, and some time after the head of the child appears. As the skull-bones have not yet acquired their perfect form and substance, but are attached at the crown of the head only by a strong membrane, and may be brought nearer together, the head, by the pressure which it undergoes, may be somewhat diminished in size and squeezed into a more oblong form, so as to pass through the opening of the matrix and the pelvis in which it is contained, and, finally, through the external parts of generation; and when this is done, the rest of the body soon follows.

The act of birth or delivery is accordingly, in general, not an unnatural, dangerous and diseased state of the system, as many timid women imagine. It is a natural process of development, which is no more a disease than the cutting of the teeth or the coming on of puberty, although, like them, it may give rise to important changes in the body and to various diseases. It is true that the process of childbirth requires a violent exertion of nature, but this is facilitated by many preparatives and helps adapted to the purpose. If the birth succeeds in the way described, it is called a natural birth. For this it is requisite that the pelvis should be properly formed and the opening should permit a free passage to the perfect foetus; that the growth and size of the fœtus should be proportioned to the pelvis, especially that the head should have the size designed by nature, proportioned to the diameter of the pelvis; also, that there should be a proper situation of the womb, in regard to the axis of the pelvis, and a proper position of the fœtus, namely, the head down, the back of the head in front and toward the opening of the womb, so as to appear first at birth; and,

finally, that the external parts of generation should be in a natural state.

An easy birth takes place without any excessive strainings and in due season. A difficult birth proceeds naturally, but is joined with great efforts and pangs, and occupies a long time-over six or eight hours. The cause of it is sometimes the stiffness of the fibres of the mother, her advanced years, the disproportionate size of the child's head and various other causes. Nature, however, finishes even these births; and women in labor ought not to be immediately dejected and impatient on account of these difficulties. An unnatural (or properly, an irregular) birth is one in which one or more of the above-mentioned requisites to a natural birth are wanting. An artificial birth is that which is accomplished by the help of art, with instruments or the hands of the attendant. Premature birth is one which happens some weeks before the usual time, namely, after the seventh and before the end of the ninth month. Though nature has assigned the period of 40 weeks for the full maturing of the foetus, it sometimes attains, some weeks before this period has elapsed, such a growth that it may be preserved alive, in some cases, after its separation from the mother. That it has not reached its mature state is determined by various indications. Such a child, for instance, does not cry like full-grown infants, but only utters a faint sound, sleeps constantly, and must be kept constantly warm, otherwise its hands and feet immediately become chilled. Besides this, in

premature child, more or less, according as it is more or less premature, the skin over the whole body is red, often indeed blue, covered with a fine, long, woolly hair, especially on the sides of the face, and on the back; the fontanel of the head is large, the skull-bones easily moved; the face looks old and wrinkled; the eyes are generally closed; the nails on the fingers and toes short, tender and soft, hardly a line in length; the weight of such a child is under six, often under five pounds. The birth is called untimely when the foetus is separated from the womb before the seventh month. Such children can rarely be kept alive; there are instances, however, of five months' children living. Some writers have contended that a seven months' child is more likely to live than one born a month later.

Late birth is a birth after the usual period of 40 weeks. As this reckoning of the time from pregnancy to birth is founded for the most part solely on the evidence of the mother, there is much room for mistake or deception. The question is one of much interest in medical jurisprudence, as the inquiry often arises whether a child born more than 40 weeks after the death of the reputed father is to be considered legitimate or not. The importance of the question and the uncertainty of the proof have occasioned a great variety of opinions among medical writers. Most of them doubt the truth of the mother's assertions about such a delayed birth and give as their reason that nature confines herself to the fixed period of pregnancy; that grief, sickness, etc., cannot hinder the growth of the fœtus, etc. Others maintain, on the contrary, that nature binds herself to no fixed rules; that various causes may delay the growth of the child, etc.

11

Abortion and miscarriage take place when a fœtus is brought forth so immature that it cannot live. They happen from the beginning of pregnancy to the seventh month, but most frequently in the third month. The occasions, especially in those of a susceptible or sanguine temperament, are violent shocks of body or mind by blows, falling, dancing, cramp, passion, etc.

BIRTH RATE. See VITAL STATISTICS.
BIRTHMARK. See NÆVUS.

BIRTHRIGHT, any right or privilege to which a person is entitled by birth, such as an estate descendible by law to an heir, or civil liberty under a free constitution. See PRIMO

GENITURE.

BIRTHROOT. See TRILLIUM.

BIRTHS, Registration of. The original object of birth registration, which was performed by the clergy in England as early as 1538, was to prevent disputes regarding inheritance, but it was not until 1837 that systematic records were kept in England by the Registrar-General's Office becoming compulsory in 1876. On the continent birth registration became compulsory in most countries during the 19th century. In most of the United States birth registry is also compulsory, but it is only in Pennsylvania, Michigan and most of the New England States that the laws are fully enforced. In 1912 the Census Bureau prepared a model bill for the registration of births, which is being urged upon the individual States by the various organizations interested in vital statistics, among these, for obvious reasons, being the societies seeking to limit the employment of children and to control infant mortality. See VITAL STATISTICS.

BIRTHWORT. See ARISTOLOCHIA.

BIRU, the name of a warlike chief of South America, who flourished in the 16th century. During an exploring expedition of Gaspar de Morales in 1515 the Spaniards encountered a chief called Biru, by whom they were repulsed. His territory extended on both sides of the river Biru or Piru. All the country south of the Gulf of Panama was soon characterized as the Biru country. In 1526 this name was given to the empire of the Incas, now known as Peru.

His

BIRUNI, bē-rooʻnĭ, Abu Raihan Muhammed ibn Ahmed, Arabian scholar and writer: b. Khwarizm 973; d. Ghazni, Afghanistan, 1048. He visited India, where he spent a long period teaching the Greek sciences and obserying the life and customs of the people. latter years were spent at Ghazni, Afghanistan. Some of his more important works have been translated into English by C. E. Sachaw, among these being Chronology of Ancient Nations (London 1879); 'An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about 1030 A.D.) (London 1910).

BISBEE, William Henry, American general: b. Rhode Island, 28 Jan. 1840. At the outbreak of the Civil War he enlisted as a private and served until its conclusion. the mustering out of the volunteers he was retained in the regular establishment, after

On

which he served against the Indians in the West, quelling many of the Indian disturbances. During the Spanish-American War he served in Cuba, participating in the battles of El Caney and San Juan. In 1899 he was transferred to the Philippines, where he had command of all the American forces north of Manila for some time. In 1902 he was retired with the rank of brigadier-general.

BISBEE, Arizona, town of Cochise County, the terminus of a branch line of the El Paso and Southwestern Railroad, which connects with the Southern Pacific Railroad at Benson. Bisbee lies in a cañon of the Mule Pass Mountain, about 30 miles south of Tombstone, the county capital, and has gold, silver and lead mining interests and is a busy copper mining and smelting centre, the daily output in the district reaching about 7,000 tons. It contains two hospitals and a public library. Pop. 9,019.

Many

BISCAY (Spanish VIZCAYA, veth-cä-yä), Spain, a province, forming one of the three Basque provinces, the other two being Alava and Guipúzcoa. It lies near the northeast corner of Spain, between the Bay of Biscay and the provinces of Santander, Burgos, Alava and Guipúzcoa. The area is 836 square miles; the population was estimated at 368,024 in 1914. The surface is generally mountainous; the principal river is the Nervion or Ibaizabal. In point of soil and natural productions Biscay is one of the least favored provinces of Spain; but the industry of the inhabitants has converted naturally barren tracts into fruitful fields and verdant pastures. The chief crops are maize and barley. fine fruits, especially nectarines, are raised; walnuts and chestnuts everywhere abound and form a considerable export to England and Germany. The cattle are of a small and inferior breed; and the rearing of sheep for wool is rendered difficult by the brushwood which covers a great part of the mountain districts and tears and destroys the fleece. Fish abound along the coast and give occupation to a great number of fishing-boats. The most important mineral is iron, which is found of excellent quality throughout the province and is extensively worked. Lead, copper and zinc also occur. The inhabitants of Biscay, who are called Basques, are brave, active and industrious. The capital of Biscay is Bilbao (pop. 93,536).

BISCAY, Bay of, Roman "Sinus Aquitanicus," "Sinus Cantabricus," "Cantaber Oceanus" or "Gallicus Oceanus," and French "Golfe de Gascogne," called the Cantabrian Sea; that portion of the Atlantic Ocean which sweeps in along the northern shores of the Spanish Peninsula in an almost straight line from Cape Ortegal to Saint Jean de Luz, at the western foot of the Pyrenees, and thence curves north along the western shores of France to the island of Ushant. Its extreme width is about 400 miles and its length about the same. The depth of water varies from 20 to 200 fathoms, being greatest along the northern shores of Spain. The whole of the southern coast is bold and rocky and great parts of the French shores are low and sandy. The bay receives numerous unimportant streams from the mountains of Spain and, through the riv

BISCHOFF

ers Loire, Charente, Gironde and Adour, the waters of half the surface of France. Its chief ports are Santander, Bilbao and San Sebastian, in Spain; and Bayonne, Bordeaux, Rochefort, La Rochelle and Nantes, in France. Navigation of the bay is proverbially trying to inexperienced voyagers and is frequently rendered dangerous by the prevalence of strong winds, especially westerly ones. Rennel Current sweeps in from the ocean round the northern coast of Spain. Consult "Transactions" (Linnean Society of London, series 2 Zoology,' London 1904-11).

BISCEGLIE, be-shal-ya, Italy, a seaport town in the province of Bari, 13 miles eastsoutheast of Barletta, on a rock on the western shore of the Adriatic, surrounded by walls and in general badly built. It has a cathedral, a dilapidated castle, a seminary, a hospital and the ruins of a hospital for pilgrims founded by the Crusaders. The port admits vessels of small burden only. The town being almost destitute of water, rain is collected in large cisterns cut in the solid rock. The neighborhood produces good wine. Important fairs are held here twice a year. Pop. 34,425.

BISCHOF, bish'ōf, Karl Gustav Christoph, German geologist and chemist: b. Nuremberg, 18 Jan. 1792; d. Bonn, 30 Nov. 1870. He studied in Erlangen; became professor of chemistry and technology there in 1819 and professor of chemistry and mineralogy at Bonn in 1822. He devoted himself especially to geological research and advanced some entirely new opinions in regard to the formation of mountain ranges, on which he wrote three works. He also made a series of important experiments on gases in coal mines and safety lamps. His greatest work, Text-book of Chemical and Physical Geology' (3d ed., 1863-66), is an important contribution to the development of that phase of geological research.

BISCHOFF, Joseph Eduard Konrad, German novelist: b. Niedergailbach, 9 Aug. 1828; d. 1910. He was fitted for the priesthood, studying at the Catholic Seminary at Munich and was ordained a priest, but later gave his whole attention to literary work and wrote a number of novels in which he attacks the Protestant Reformation and the modern movement in literature and science. Among his works are Historical Novels concerning Frederick II and his Time'; 'Wegenfried'; 'Gustavus Adolphus'; 'The Free Thinkers' 'The Social Democrats and their Fathers'; 'Otto the Great'; and 'The New God.'

BISCHOFF, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, German physiologist: b. Hanover, 28 Oct. 1807; d. Munich, 5 Dec. 1882. He was educated at Bonn; was lecturer in the university there in 1833; and professor at Heidelberg in 1836, in 1844 he was at Giessen and from 1855-78 at Munich. His chief work was a series of books on the history of the development of man and some of the higher animals and his 'Evidence of the Periodic Ripening and Detachment of the Ova, independently of Generation in Man and the Mammals.' also established the presence of carbonic acid and oxygen in the blood and studied the difference between man and the anthropoid apes.

He

BISCUIT, a thin cake, baked until crisp and dry. In this shape it is known in the United States as a cracker; the name biscuit being applied to a soft cake made from dough raised with yeast. Plain biscuits are more nutritious than an equal weight of bread, but owing to their hardness and dryness, they should be more thoroughly masticated to insure their easy digestion. When exposed to moisture, biscuits are apt to lose their brittleness and become moldy, hence it is necessary to keep them in a dry atmosphere. Digestive biscuits consist almost entirely of bran. Charcoal biscuits contain about 10 per cent of powdered vegetable charcoal. Meat biscuits, which are very nutritious, contain either extract of meat, or lean meat which has been dried and ground to a fine powder.

In pottery, articles molded and baked in an oven, preparatory to the glazing and burn ing. In the biscuit form, pottery is porous, but the glaze sinks into the pores and fuses in the kiln, forming a vitreous coating to the

ware.

BISHARRIN, be-sha-ren', a group of tribes of northeast Africa, forming the northern division of the Beja, said to be the Kushites of the Bible. They live between the Red

Sea and the Nile and between Egypt and Abyssinia; they are nomadic in habit and nominally Mohammedans. They are of Caucasian race and speak a well-developed Hamitic language. The grammar has been compiled by Olmkvist (Upsala 1881-85) and Reinisch (Vienna 1893). Consult Munzinger, 'Ostafrikanische Studien' (Schaffhausen 1864).

BISHOP, SIR Henry Rowley, English musical composer: b. London, 18 Nov. 1786; d. 30 April 1855. He was trained to his profession under Signor Bianchi, composer to the London Opera House. In 1809 his first important opera, the Circassian Bride,' was produced at Drury Lane with great success; but the following evening the theatre, with the score of Bishop's opera, was consumed by fire.

Numerous operas and other musical pieces of his composition now followed and from this period to 1826 upward of 70 works were produced by him. Among others may be mentioned the music of Guy Mannering); 'The Slave'; 'The Miller and His Men' 'Maid Marian'; 'The Virgin of the Sun, and the adaptations of The Barber of Seville) and the Marriage of Figaro. From 1810 to 1824 he acted as musical composer and director to Covent Garden Theatre. He also arranged several volumes of the National Melodies and completed the arrangement of the music for Moore's Irish Melodies,' commenced by Sir John Stevenson. In 1826 Bishop produced an opera called 'Aladdin,' which was not successful. He was elected Reid professor of music in Edinburgh University in 1841, was knighted in 1842 and in 1848 became professor of music in the University of Oxford. Some of his work is the most popular of all music among English-speaking people, particularly his setting of John Howard Payne's "Home Sweet Home" and "When the Bloom is on the Rye." His manuscript scores may be found in the Royal College of Music and the Liverpool Free Library.

13.r

BISHOP, Isabella (BIRD), English author and traveler: b. Boroughbridge Hall, Yorkshire, 15 Oct. 1832; d. 7 Oct. 1904. She began to travel at the age of 22 and made her first trip abroad in 1855, when she visited Prince Edward Island and the United States and afterward circumnavigated the globe three times. In her later years she spent much time in Japan and the Far East. In 1892 she was elected the first lady fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. She was married in 1881 to Dr. John Bishop, who died five years later. Her publications include The English Woman in America) (1856); 'Six Months in the Sandwich Islands' (1873); The Hawaiian Archipelago (1875); 'A Lady's Life in the Rocky Mountains (1874); (Unbeaten Tracks in Japan (1880); Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan (1892); Among the Tibetans (1894); Korea and Her Neighbors) (1898); The Yangtze Valley and Beyond' (1899); 'Pictures from China' (1900). Her Life,' by A. M. Stoddart, was published in London 1907.

BISHOP, Joseph Bucklin, American author and government official: b. Seekonk, Mass. (now East Providence, R. I.), 5 Sept. 1847. A graduate of Brown University, after sevEvening Post and Globe, New York city, he eral years' editorial experience on the Tribune, was appointed secretary of the Isthmian Canal Commission 1 Sept. 1905. He wrote "The Panama Gateway) (1913); and with Robert E. Peary, 'Uncle Sam's Panama Canal and World History' (1913). His previous works were Cheap Money Experiments' (1892); 'Our Political Drama' (1904); Issues of a New Epoch (1904).

BISHOP, Louis Faugères, American physician: b. New Brunswick, N. J., 14 March 1864. He was graduated at Rutgers College in 1885 and at the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1889. He was resident physician of Saint Luke's Hospital, New York, in 1889-92 and secretary of the New York Academy of Medicine and chairman of its Section of Medicine in 1900. His publications include Arteriosclerosis) (1914); Heart Disease, Blood Pressure and the Nauheim Treatment' (1914).

BISHOP, Seth Scott, American physician: b. Fond du Lac, Wis., 7 Feb. 1852. In his boyhood he learned the printer's trade and edited and published a paper called The Pen while attending Pooler Institute, a private school, setting all the type and printing it himself. Before graduating from Pooler Institute, he entered upon the study of medicine. After his course at this school, he was a student at Beloit College for three years, took two courses at the University of the City of New York, medical department. and completed his undergraduate course at Chicago Medical College, now the Northwestern University Medical School, from which he was graduated M.D. in 1876. Among other institutions which have conferred degrees upon him are the Chicago Law School and the Chicago School of Science. He did post-graduate work in Chicago and in Berlin, Germany. For a short time he practised his profession in his native town and in Rochester, Minn., after which, in 1879, he removed to Chicago where he has