regions of Khuzistan, while by means of the Euphrates it communicates with Bassorah, Bagdad, and the Persian gulf. During the war of 1857 it was bombarded and taken by the British under Sir James Outram; after the conclusion of peace it was restored to the shah.

MOHAWK, a river of New York, which rises in Oneida co., about 20 m. N. from Rome, from which place it flows S. E. and E. through Herkimer, Montgomery, Schenectady, and Saratoga counties, falling into the Hudson at Waterford, 10 m. above Albany; length, 135 m. At Little Falls, Herkimer co., and "The Noses," Montgomery co., the river has forced its way through the mountain barriers, and flows through deep, rocky ravines; and at Cohoes, 1 m. from its mouth, it falls over a precipice 70 feet in perpendicular height. During its course it supplies great and valuable water power. The Erie canal and the New York central railroad follow its banks as far as Rome. Rome, Utica, Little Falls, Schenectady, and Waterford are the principal towns on its banks.

MOHAWKS, a tribe of American Indians, one of the six nations named collectively by the French the Iroquois. According to their own tradition, confirmed by those of other tribes, they were the eldest people in the league. They believed that they were liberated from subterranean confinement by Tareya-wagon, who guided them into the valley of the Mohawk; thence they passed to the Hudson and to the sea; but the valley in which they at first established themselves was the seat of their power from the discovery of the country until the American revolution. Their dominion extended from Lake Champlain to the head waters of the Susquehanna and the Delaware. Renowned above all the other nations for their skill as warriors, they carried terror wherever they went. Their forays were pursued as far as the Connecticut river, and their influence prevailed among the small independent tribes about the region of the present city of New York. During the French and Indian war they supported Sir William Johnson, following him in his most perilous expeditions, and aiding him in the contests of Lake George and Niagara. After his death they transferred their attachment to his family, and were forced to flee from their ancestral home to Canada. A few of them now reside with their brethren, the Senecas, Tuscaroras, and Oneidas, but the greater portion occupy lands appropriated for their use by the British government, at Brantford, on the Grand river of Canada West. To this place they followed their leader Thayendanegea (Joseph Brant) at the close of the revolution.

MOHEGANS, or MOHICANS, a tribe of American Indians, of Algonquin lineage, which inhabited during the early period of the Iroquois confederacy the country now forming the S. W. parts of New England, and that portion of New York E. of the Hudson. They retired before Iroquois conquests over the highlands into the valley of the Housatonic, but were early dis

possessed of that territory by the whites. The few of them that now remain are scattered among other tribes.

MOHILEV, or MOGHILEV, a S. W. government of European Russia, bounded N. by Vitebsk, E. by Smolensk and Tchernigov, S. by Tchernigov, and W. by Minsk; area, about 20,000 sq. m.; pop. in 1856, 873,888. The surface is generally level, and the soil fertile. The climate is mild and dry. There are several small lakes and marshes. The principal river is the Dnieper. Bog iron is found in abundance.-MoHILEV, the capital, is situated on the right bank of the Dnieper, 212 m. W. S. W. from Moscow; pop. about 21,000, including many Jews. It is the seat of a Greek archbishop, and of the Roman Catholic archbishop and primate of Russia and Poland (in 1860, Wenceslaus Zylinski), and is also a favorite residence of the Russian nobility. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1708, and recovered by Peter the Great in 1709. A meeting of Joseph II. and the empress Catharine took place there in 1780. A portion of the Russian army was defeated there by the French, July 23, 1812.

MOHL, JULIUS VON, a German orientalist, naturalized in France, born in Stuttgart, Oct. 28, 1800. He studied at Tübingen and Paris, and in 1826 was appointed professor of oriental literature in the university of Tübingen, but was permitted to continue his studies for some time in Oxford and London. Subsequently, on being intrusted by the French government with the preparation of an edition of Firdusi's Shah Nameh for the Collection orientale, he relinquished his chair, and since 1832 has resided in Paris. In 1844 he succeeded the elder Burnouf as a member of the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres, in 1845 Joubert as professor of the Persian language at the collége de France, and in 1852 Eugène Burnouf as inspector of the publication of oriental works in the imprimerie impériale, and as secretary of the Asiatic society, of which previous to that time he had been assistant secretary. His edition of Firdusi's celebrated poem is still in progress; the first 4 vols., in Persian and French, appeared between 1838 and 1854.

MÖHLER, JOHANN ADAM, a Roman Catholic theologian, born at Igersheim, Würtemberg, May 6, 1796, died in Munich, April 12, 1838. Having pursued his classical and theological studies at Mergentheim, Ellwangen, and Tübingen, he was ordained priest in 1819, and appointed in 1820 tutor in the seminary (Wilhelmsstift) connected with the faculty of Catholic theology at Tübingen. His intention to devote himself to the study of classical philology was changed by an invitation of the theological faculty to lecture on theology. Before he entered on his new office, he was enabled by a stipend from the government to visit the principal Catholic and Protestant universities of Germany. On his return he commenced a course of lectures on church history, patrology, and canon law, which at once established his repu

tation as an eminent theologian. At the same time he became a regular contributor to the "Theological Quarterly," published by the faculty of Tübingen, which was then and is still the leading journal for scientific theology in Catholic Germany. In his first articles he strongly sympathized with the reformatory movements which then agitated the Catholic church of S. W. Germany; he advocated the restoration of communion in both kinds, the abrogation of the use of Latin in the divine service, &c.; but in later years he abandoned these views, and the articles expressing them are not included in the collection of his minor works published by Dr. Döllinger (Gesammelte Schriften und Aufsätze, 2 vols., Ratisbon, 1839). In 1825 he published his first great work on "Unity in the Church, or the Principle of Catholicism according to the Church Fathers of the first three Centuries," which was regarded by Protestants and Catholics as one of the most important works of this century in defence of the Roman Catholic church, although not a few Catholic theologians were of opinion that Möhler had made too great concessions to Protestantism. Soon after the publication of this work (in 1826), he received a call as professor of theology to the university of Freiburg; and when he declined, the government of Würtemberg appointed him extraordinary professor at Tübingen. In 1827 he published his second important work, "Athanasius the Great, and the Church of his Times, especially in its Contest with Arianism" (2 vols., Mentz), for which the faculty of Tübingen conferred on him the title of D.D. His last and greatest work, "Symbolism, or Exposition of the Doctrinal Differences between Protestants and Catholics" (Mentz, 1832; 5th ed. 1838; English translation by Robertson), caused an extraordinary sensation in the theological world. The Protestant theologians conceded to him that he had succeeded in representing the Roman Catholic church in a more advantageous light than any other theologian since Bossuet; but they also maintained that he had not represented actual, but ideal Catholicism, and that he had misrepresented, at least partly, the doctrinal systems of the reformers of the 16th century. Some of the most distinguished Protestant divines wrote against him; especially Baur (Der Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantism, Tübingen, 1833; 2d ed. 1836), Marheinike, and Nitzsch. Möhler answered them, especially Baur, in his "New Investigations on the Doctrinal Differences between Catholics and Protestants" (Mentz, 1834). Baur replied again in the new edition of his work, but the continuation of the controversy was forbidden by the government, and Möhler was censured for having revived an obsolete contest. This turn of the controversy disgusted him with Tübingen, and when the Prussian government again offered him a professorship either at Bonn, Breslau, or Münster, he chose Bonn, but subsequently declined, when the archbishop of Cologne demanded that he should expressly retract his work on

"Unity in the Church," a condition to which he was unwilling to consent. In 1834 he accepted a call to the university of Munich, but his lectures were interrupted by sickness in 1836, and he never fully recovered. Two months before his death he wrote, on the imprisonment of the archbishops of Cologne and Posen by the Prussian government, his last article in the interest of his church, yet with such moderation and in language so dignified, that the Prussian government made a last and again unsuccessful effort to secure his services for one of the national universities. At the time of his death he was occupied in collecting materials for a history of monachism, fragments of which are published in the collection of his miscellaneous writings. This contains some other articles, which are counted among the most thorough works on their various subjects; especially on the relation of Islamism to Christianity, on the Pseudo-Isidore, on Gnosticism, on the history of the abolition of slavery, &c. A larger posthumous work on the Christian literature of the first three centu ries was edited by Prof. Reithmayr of Munich (Patrologie, vol. i., Ratisbon, 1839). A Catholic biography of Möhler, by Reithmayr, is added to the 5th edition of his "Symbolism." The best Protestant biography, which is that of Prof. Kling of Marburg, likewise classes him among the greatest theologians of the century.

MOHS, FRIEDRICH, a German mineralogist, born in Gernrode in 1774, died in Agordo, Lombardy, Sept. 29, 1839. He is known as the inventor of a new system of classification for minerals, which regards, in the collecting of species into higher groups, only their external characteristics. He left various works on mineralogical subjects.

MOIDORE, an old gold coin of Portugal, valued at £1 68., or about $6. There are also half and quarter moidores.

MOIGNO, FRANÇOIS NAPOLÉON MARIE, & French clergyman and scientific writer, born in Guémené, Morbihan, April 20, 1804. He studied under the Jesuits, became a member of their order, and in 1836 was appointed to the chair of mathematics in one of the Jesuit establishments in Paris. He became so deeply interested in scientific pursuits, that during the publication of his "Lessons in Differential and Integral Calculus" (2 vols. 8vo., 1840), being ordered by his superior to abandon his studies and accept the professorship of history and Hebrew in the university of Laval, he refused to obey, and after 4 years of dispute left the order. In 1845 he took charge of the scientific department in the Époque newspaper, and travelled through Europe as correspondent for that journal. He held similar positions on the staff of La Presse and of Le Pays. In 1848 he was appointed by M. Sibour chaplain of the lyceum of Louis le Grand. He has published a Traité de la télégraphie électrique (1849); Répertoire d'optique moderne (1850); and essays Sur le stéréoscope and Sur le saccharimètre (1853). In 1852 he founded Cosmos, an encyclopædic review.

MOIR, DAVID MACBETH, a Scottish author, born in Musselburgh, Jan. 5, 1798, died in Dumfries, July 6, 1851. He was educated at the grammar school of his native town, and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to a medical practitioner named Stewart for a term of 4 years, after the expiration of which he attended medical lectures at the Edinburgh university, and obtained a diploma as surgeon in 1816. At first he intended to enter the army, but abandoned that plan, and in 1817 formed a partnership with Dr. Brown in Musselburgh. He worked hard in his profession, and spent his nights in literary pursuits, contributing both in prose and verse to Constable's "Edinburgh Magazine" and to "Blackwood." His serious poems were signed with the Greek letter A, and hence he was more commonly known to readers by the designation of Delta. In 1824 he published "The Legend of Genevieve, with other Tales and Poems," and in the same year began in "Blackwood" a serial novel, "The Autobiography of Mansie Wauch," which became very popular. His marriage took place in 1829. In 1831 he published a work on the "Ancient History of Medicine," and in 1843 another volume of poetry called "Domestic Verses," which contains some of his best known poems. In 1846 he met with an accident which made him lame for life. In 1851 the Edinburgh philosophical association invited him to deliver a course of 6 lectures on the "Poetical Literature of the Past Half Century," which were afterward published; and in the same year he made his 370th and last contribution to "Blackwood." A selection of his poetical contributions, together with a memoir by T. Aird, was published in 1852, and a new and complete edition of his works in 1857. Notwithstanding Dr. Moir's literary activity and celebrity, he adhered through life to his profession, having a large practice as the leading physician of Musselburgh, and writing only at odd moments and late at night. He died at Dumfries while on a tour of relaxation.

MOIRA, EARL OF. See HASTINGS, FRANCIS. MOKANNA, or MOCANNA. See ATHA BEN

НАКІМ.

MOLA. I. PIETRO FRANCESCO, an Italian painter, born in Coldre, duchy of Milan, in 1612 or 1621, died in Rome about 1668. He was a pupil of Cesare d'Arpino and Albano. Establishing himself in Rome, he was much employed by Innocent X. and his successor Alexander VII., as also by Queen Christina of Sweden. Mola was a good colorist, and designed with correctness and taste. He was one of the best of the Italian landscape painters. II. GIAMBATTISTA, a painter, sometimes erroneously called a brother of the preceding, born in France about 1620, died in 1661. He studied in Paris, and subsequently under Albano at Bologna. He excelled in landscapes.

MOLASSES (Fr. mélasse), the sirup which remains in the manufacture of brown sugar, after separating from the juice all the saccharine matter that can be made to crystallize to advan

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tage. Sugar house" molasses is the sirup which remains in the conversion of brown into refined sugar, and contains too little cane sugar to repay its further treatment. By fermentation and distillation molasses mixed with the skimmings of the sugar boiling is made to produce rum. (See SUGAR.) The imports of molasses into the United States in the year ending June 30, 1859, chiefly from Cuba, reached nearly 33,000,000 gallons, valued at about $5,000,000, mostly used for home consumption.

MOLBECH, CHRISTIAN, a Danish scholar and author, born in Soröe, Oct. 8, 1783, died in Copenhagen in June, 1857. He passed from the university of Copenhagen to a position in the royal library in 1804, of which he became chief librarian in 1823, when he became also professor of literary history in the university. În 1811-'13, and again in 1819 and in 1830, he travelled in the principal countries of Europe. From 1830 to 1842 he was one of the directors of the royal theatre, and as dramatic censor sought to raise the national stage to a more artistic character. The list of his writings, and of the reviews of them, in Erslew's Forfatter Lexicon, occupies over 11 closely printed pages. His work on bibliography has been translated into German, and is considered one of the best on the subject.-His son, CHRISTIAN Knud Frederik, born July 21, 1821, has held an office in the royal library since 1843, and since 1853 has been professor of literature at Kiel. He has published lyric poems, a dissertation on statuary, a drama entitled Dante, and a lively narrative of travels in Spain.

MOLDAU, a river of Bohemia, which rises in the Bohemian forest, on the frontiers of Bavaria, flows in a S. E. direction as far as Rosenberg, and then pursues a N. course to Melnik, opposite to which town it falls into the Elbe. It is about 300 m. long, and for nearly half its course is navigable. Its chief tributaries are the Luschnitz, Sazava, Beraun, and Wattawa. The principal towns on its banks are Rosenberg, Budweis, and Prague. Vessels of 60 tons burden can ply on it to Prague.

MOLDAVIA (Turk. Bogdan), a country of Europe belonging to the Turkish empire, and now together with Wallachia forming the vassal state of the Danubian principalities. It is situated between lat. 45° and 49° N. and long. 25° and 29° E., and is bounded N. E. and E. by Bessarabia, from which it is separated by the Pruth, S. by the Bulgarian district of Dobrodja and by Wallachia, being separated from the former by the Danube, W. by Transylvania, and N. W. by Bukovina; area, including the lately reannexed districts of Bessarabia, 18,400 sq. m.; pop. in 1860, 1,400,000. It is traversed in the N. and W. by various offshoots of the eastern Carpathians, through which several passes lead into Bukovina and Transylvania. The principal rivers are the Danube, which during its short course on the S. boundary receives the waters of all the others, the Pruth, and the Sereth. The chief affluents of the Pruth are the Baglui and Shisha;

of the Sereth, the Bistritza, Moldava, Milkov, and Birlat. The largest lake is between the mouth of the Pruth and Sereth, in the S. E. corner of the country. Moldavia is rich in pastures, and produces wheat, maize, and other grains; excellent melons, which form a considerable part of the food of the peasantry; wines of various kinds, some of which rival those of Hungary; fruits, honey in great abundance, and several minerals, among which salt holds a prominent place. The forests contain bears, wolves, lynxes, and the aurochs, and yield excellent timber; the rivers abound in fish. Locusts often appear in destructive multitudes. The climate is rough in winter, but pleasant in summer. The inhabitants consist of Moldavians proper, of the Wallach race, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Csángó-Magyars, Franks, and gypsies. The dominant religion is the orthodox Greek. The general language is the Wallachian, in which the preponderant Latin or Romanic element is largely mixed with Slavic, Turkish, and Tartar words. Agriculture, horticulture, and grazing are the principal occupations of the inhabitants, inanufactures being almost entirely undeveloped, and commerce almost exclusively in the hands of the Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. Wine, honey, wax, cattle, hides, horses, and timber are the chief articles of export. The country is divided into Upper (or western) and Lower (or eastern) Moldavia, and subdivided into 13 zinuts (districts) and 64 okols (circles). The most important towns are Jassy, the capital and seat of the Greek archbishop, on the Baglui; Galatz, the chief emporium, on the Danube; Fokshany, on the Milkov; Roman, on the Sereth; Bakeu, on the Bistritza; and Botashany, on the Shisha. Moldavia is ruled by a hospodar (now sovereign of both the Danubian principalities), under the suzerainty of the Porte, and the protectorate of the great European powers. He is elected for life by the boyars or nobles, and limited by a divan or senate and a legislative assembly. He appoints the ministers. There is a civil, commercial, and canonical code. The military force consists chiefly of militia. The most influential class of citizens is that of the boyars, who enjoy ample privileges, and also represent the political life of the people. Education, in general, is still in its infancy. (For further details on the constitution and the financial and literary condition of the united principalities, see WALLACHIA, and WALLACHIAN LANGUAGE and LITERATURE.)-In ancient times the country, which at various periods of its history extended beyond its present limits, was occupied by the Getæ. Darius Hystaspes invaded it on his expedition against the Scyths. It was subsequently an object of contention between the Scyths and the rulers of Macedon. In the latter part of the 1st century it belonged to the Dacian kingdom of Decebalus. Parts of it were attached, after his defeat, to the Roman province of Dacia. During the great migration of northern nations it was successively invaded by the Goths, Huns, Bulgarians, and Slavic tribes.

The Avars became dominant in the 6th century, but had soon to yield to the Bulgarians and their allies. After a few centuries the Bulgarians were overpowered by the Khazars, Petcheneges, and others. The latter tribes successfully warred with the Magyars, but continual dissensions prevented the inhabitants of the country from forming a well organized state, and the introduction of Christianity in the 11th century was almost without effect. Wars with the Greeks depopulated the country, which was soon after invaded by the Cumanians. These were in their turn subdued by the Mongols. Toward the close of the 13th century the inhabitants consisted chiefly of disunited Tartar, Cumanian, Petcheneg, Greek, Italian, and Wallach elements. In the earlier part of the following century a new Wallach immigration took place from Hungary under Bogdan, who together with his son Dragosh succeeded in establishing a dynasty of waywodes known in history under the name of the Dragoshites. The country now received the name of Moldavia from the river Moldava. The Greek creed was made predominant. But conflicts for the succession, insurrections, conspiracies, fratricidal feuds of every description, combined with external wars against Russians, Lithuanians, Poles, Crimean Tartars, Hungarians, Wallachians, and Turks, to make the long reign of the Dragoshites one of the bloodiest in history. One of the most warlike princes of the period was Stephen VI., surnamed the Great, son of Bogdan II., who died in 1504; but his son and successor Bogdan III. was unfortunate in his wars against the Hungarians and Poles, and having also suffered an invasion of the Tartars, he submitted himself to the suzerainty of the Porte. Bogdan's son, Stephen VII., leaned toward the Christian powers; but his successor, Peter VI., an illegitimate son of Stephen VI., allied himself closely with Sultan Solyman the Magnificent during his expedition against Vienna, receiving the acknowledgment of princely dignity in exchange for tribute. Moldavia was now a vassal province of the Ottoman empire, and soon after lost its eastern division, situated between the Pruth and Dniester, and now known as Bessarabia, which was constituted a separate Turkish province. This part was subsequently often reannexed and again detached. The suzerainty of the Porte little if at all ameliorated the condition of the distracted country. Civil wars, assassinations of the rulers, insurrections, depositions, and restorations were common events. For some time the boyars exercised the privilege of electing the way wodes. Later, however, the sultans were called upon to appoint them. Way wodes of various nationalities were now successively appointed, but their rule proved as inefficient in establishing a permanent condition of subjection, as it was distasteful to the boyars. One of the more distinguished foreigners was Basil Lupulo, a Greek of Epirus, who promoted civilization and science, but was deposed in the middle of the 17th cen