spleen is then removed independently. The stomach is opened along the lesser curvature, and its contents, color, consistence, amount, odor, etc., noted. In cases of poisoning it is occasionally advisable to delay this examination for the same reason that the intestines are not opened.

On the other hand, in regard to both of these organs, it may be said that with proper precautions to keep the contents from contact with other material and with due regard to their not being lost, an examination at this time may be desirable. It often occurs that the toxicological examination is not made for some time later, when putrefaction may have set in and destroyed, or at least brought about changes which may be confused with the appearance occurring as a result of the poison. After the contents have been measured, the mucous membranes are examined.

The size, weight, color, density, surface, and edges of the liver should be noted. The condition of the gall-bladder and its ducts are also of importance.

Examination of the Pelvic Cavity.-The kidneys are then removed and examined with reference to their size, color, both on the surface and on section; the condition of the capsule, whether adherent to the kidney or not; the relations of the cortical to the medullary portions of the kidney, and the presence of cysts; also the ureters, especially their size, and the absence of obstruction in their lumen.

If the autopsy is performed upon a female subject, the womb, vagina, bladder, ovaries, tubes, and uterine appendages are removed together by dissecting away the connective tissue at the brim of the pelvis. The bladder is opened through the urethra and vagina by a lateral incision along its left side. The os uteri is uncovered by removing the vagina and bladder from the cervix; the depth of the womb is measured carefully; the uterine cavity is opened along the front of the organ and the ovaries examined with reference to their size, consistence, and the presence or absence of the remains of corpora lutea or other remnants of Graafian follicles. The tubes, ligaments, and rectum are also examined.

In the examination of the head the removal of the scalp is to be made by an incision from ear to ear, over the crown of the head. The scalp is then pulled back below the occipital protuberance and the anterior portion pushed forward over the frontal eminence. A short cut is then made through the skull, which passes in front of the frontal eminence and is carried laterally within an inch of the auditory meatus, and these cuts are joined posteriorly by another passing just above the occipital protuberance. The dura is inspected as to the amount of its injection; the meninges are also examined for this same condition, and also for the absence or presence of signs of inflammation. The convolutions of the brain may be suggestive of hemorrhage and compression re

sulting therefrom. The cerebral lobes are then cut with long, sweeping incisions to examine the blood-supply. The lateral ventricles may disclose the presence of fluid. Any injury to the brain should be noticed and, if present, should be carefully measured if it is in any way connected with the cause of death.

Special Conditions.-There are certain conditions which may necessitate a postmortem examination, and about which a word or two more may be said.

BODY RECOVERED FROM WATER.-In case the body under examination has been recovered from water, it should be noticed whether there is grass, mud, or other material clutched by the hands; if the tongue is protruded; if any food, froth, or foreign matters are in or about the mouth, trachea, or bronchi; if the stomach contains much water; if the blood in the heart and principal vessels is fluid, etc. Marks of injuries that occurred after death should, if possible, be carefully differentiated from those which are antemortem.

In cases of STRANGULATION or hanging the lividity of the face should be particularly noticed; the condition of the conjunctivæ, the position of the tongue, larynx, and the state of the blood, as to its color and consistence, and the heart as to its blood-supply. The marks of the ligature deserve special attention, and the occurrence of extensive extravasations in the tissues of the neck should not be passed by.

In cases where induced ABORTION is suspected and the patient is alive, evidence of recent delivery showing that she has undergone manipulation by instruments, and the recognition of symptoms from ingestion of socalled abortifacients should be determined. When in these cases the woman is dead, examination of the organs of generation should be particularly careful; there should be close inspection for marks of wounds caused by instruments and any appearance indicating inflammation or miscarriage.

In cases of INFANTICIDE, the maturity of the child, as to whether it was still-born or not; whether death took place before, during, or after birth, and whether its death was the result of natural causes, neglect, or violence; and whether the suspected woman shows signs of recent child-birth. In regard to the first, the following points should be noticed: the general aspect and development; the skin and its appendages, the hair and nails; the pupillary membrane, whether present or not; the length and weight of the whole body; the degree of ossification in the lower epiphysis of the femur, etc.

CHAPTER VI.

IDENTITY

The identification of a living person or of a dead body is not always an easy matter. Often the acquaintances and kindred of a living person may suffice to identify him. On the other hand, for some peculiar reason, and there are many, identification must be established by medical evidence.

Identification in General.—A person may be arrested for a crime and claim that a mistake was made in the identification. Habitual criminals are rearrested, and it is important to ascertain their identity. A person leaves home or country when very young and returns after a long absence to claim his rights or even property. Here the question of identity is of importance. A person may set up false claims to property, and here his identity must be established. When it comes to the identity of a dead body the identification is often even more difficult. Not only are the features and conditions often much changed, but the personal element of a living person is also lacking, such as his eccentricities and deficiencies. Identity is generally established by the age, sex, height, complexion of the individual plus certain physical peculiarities-marks on the skin, the remains of former injury, etc.

Identification is still more difficult as few people have correct powers of observation and description. One may maintain that a person's hair is dark and another maintain that it is light, so that it is easily seen that difference of opinion enters into this question, making its settlement more difficult.

A common method of disguise is the alteration of the HAIR, the manner of wearing it and its color. It should be noticed, if the person is a man, whether he is clean shaven or not, and, if not, how he trims his mustache or beard. The color of the hair may be materially lightened by bleaching with chlorin and hydrogen peroxid. This is, as a rule, easily detected on account of the unnatural brightness of the hair and the peculiar tints of color that are produced. Further, unless it is repeatedly done, the new hair close to the scalp will show the natural color. The hair may be darkened by the application of various dyes, most of which

contain some metallic base which forms a black sulphid, such as lead, bismuth, nickel or silver. In these cases of dyed or bleached hair generally the hair on other portions of the body is untreated, so that by a careful examination the fraud can be detected, although hair on other portions of the body, except in those persons having black hair, is generally of a slightly lighter shade. The natural color of the hair, except those having black hair, is a blending of several shades, all hairs not being exactly the same color; so that too much importance must not be placed upon the color of single hairs. Normal uninjured hair has a tapering end and is pointed, though, of course, this disappears if the hair has been broken or cut. Occasionally there is some peculiarity of the hair, such as a single lock being without pigment. This, of course, is characteristic of the individual, and may be the means of identification.

SCARS are also an important means of identification. Scars which are caused by the loss of substance or by healing by granulation never disappear (Casper). As to the age of a scar it is difficult often to give an opinion. A fresh scar is tender, soft, and pinkish. Later (one to two months) it becomes harder and is no longer tender, finally becoming hard, white, and shiny. Thus one cannot say whether the firm white cicatrix is the result of a wound that happened six months or more previously. On the other hand, we cannot say that it may not have been received within a much shorter time; while we can draw much closer conclusions from a recent scar. As to the nature of the cause of the scar we can only form a rough opinion. It depends upon the healing whether it was by first intention or not, and whether it is upon a surface which is lax or tense. The scar may give information as to how it was received. A stab often leaves a triangular scar, although not always. Scars from bullet wounds are often depressed, with irregular edges and occasionally powder grains are seen in the immediate neighborhood. In these cases the means of exit are generally larger and more irregular than those of entrance. Vaccination is easily recognized by its irregular, flat, depressed scars. Blisters leave no scars unless injury was done to the deeper parts. As a person grows older the cicatrix becomes smaller, and though the cicatrix is permanent it may become more or less obscured, but can generally be easily brought out by friction or rubbing.

TATTOO-MARKS may be indelible or not, according as to how well they were done and what pigment was used. When well done with indelible pigments, such as India ink and indigo, they are permanent. It has been claimed that even indelible tattoo marks by proper means can be artificially removed. One case is reported by Tardieu of a man who removed tattoo marks from his body by acetic acid, lead, potash, and, finally, hydrochloric acid. Another case is reported where tattoo marks were removed by tannic acid and silver nitrate.

BIRTH-MARKS are often useful means of establishing personal identification. Moles, nevi, etc., are unalterable except by surgical interference and in these cases, on account of the usual attachment to the true skin, a permanent cicatrix would be left. Several cases are recorded in medical literature where identity has been established by means of these congenital marks, and the parties restored to their parents or to their legal rights. Other characteristics, such as lameness from congenital hip disease, club-foot, harelip, or the scars of an operation upon it, may be important means of identification. Supernumerary fingers and toes may also serve as a means of identification. Wens and warts have also served this purpose. Occasionally one iris is a different color than the other.

Identification by means of the papillary ridges at the bulbs of the fingers is one of the best ways of identification. These ridges differ to such an extent that they are practically individual for each person. They are unchangeable during life.

The VOCATION often aids in establishing identity. The chemist, photographer, shoemaker, etc., all have their distinguishing characteristics. Dressmakers' fingers may show roughening due to needle pricks. Clerks' hands may show callouses from holding pens and pencils. Washwomen show the effect of water and soap upon their hands, and many other instances might be cited where the trade of the person is easily recognized.

Identification of the Dead.—This may not be as easy as identification of a living person for numerous reasons. The victim may be away from home, where identification of personal characteristics or by various means above described may not be possible on account of the absence of acquaintances or kindred. Further, a body may have become so badly decomposed that identification is seriously interfered with.

If it is a case of identification of one who has recently died and before putrefaction has set in, the recognition of scars, tattoo-marks, birth-marks, or other peculiar characteristics, is, of course, of great assistance, especially in addition to recognition of the features. But recognition of the features is not by any means easy, even before decomposition has begun. Sometimes very trifling matters assist in identification, such as the label bearing the name of the maker of the victim's clothes, laundry marks upon the linen, or hat-bands, etc.

The hair is of great importance in identification, especially in cases of homicide. In these latter cases we may find hairs upon the weapon that was used or upon the clothes of the accused, which may be those of the victim.

Draper reports a case from Wharton and Stille's "Medical Jurisprudence" showing the value of this evidence: "A little girl, nine years old,