2. Dice. This word ends in the sound of s in seal, instead of that of z in zeal. This serves to distinguish dice for play from dies (diez) for coining.

§ 96. Equivocal forms from Singulars in s.-The number of the following words has always been a matter of discussion amongst Grammarians.

1. Alms.—Some say, these alms are useful; in which case the word alms is plural. Others say, this alms is useful; in which case the word alms is singular. Now in the word alms the -s is no sign of the plural number, but part of the original singular, like the s in goose or loss. The Anglo-Saxon form was almesse. Notwithstanding this, we cannot say alms-es in the same way that we can say loss-es. Hence the word alms is, in respect to its original form, singular: in respect to its meaning, either singular or plural.

2. Riches. Most writers say riches are useful; in which case the word riches is plural. Still there are a few who say riches is useful; in which case riches is singular. Now in the word riches the -s is no sign of the plural number, since there is no such substantive as rich; on the contrary, it is part of the original singular, like the s in distress. The form in the original French, from which language it was derived, is richesse. Notwithstanding this, we cannot say richess-es in the same way that we can say distress-es. Hence the word riches is, in respect to its original form, singular; in respect to its meaning, either singular or plural: most frequently the latter. 3. News. Some say, this the word news is singular. pression these news are good; is plural. Now in the word alms and riches) is no part of the original singular, but the sign of the plural, like the s in trees. Notwithstanding this, we cannot subtract the s, and say new, in the same way that we can form tree from trees.

news is good; in which case More rarely we find the exin which case the word news news the -s (unlike the s in

Hence the word

news is, in respect to its original form, plural; in respect to its meaning, either singular or plural: most frequently the former.

4. Means. Some say, these means are useful; in which case the word means is plural. Others say, this means is useful; in which case the word means is singular. Now in the word means the -s (unlike the s in alms and riches, but like the s in news) is no part of the original singular, but the sign of the plural, like the s in trees. The form in the original French, from which language the word is derived, is moyen, singular: moyens, plural. If we subtract from the word means the letter s, we say mean. Now, as a singular form of the word means, with the sense it has in the phrase ways and means, there is, in the current English, no such word as mean, any more than there is such a word as new from news. But, in a different sense, there is the singular form mean; as in the phrase the golden mean, meaning middle course. Hence the word means is, in respect to its form, plural; in respect to its meaning, either singular or plural.

5. Pains. Some say, these pains are well-taken; in which case the word pains is plural. Others say, this pains is well-taken; in which case the word pains is singular. The form in the original French, from which language the word is derived, is peine. The reasoning that has been applied to the word means is closely applicable to the word pains.

6. The same also applies to the word amends. The form in French is amende, without the s.

7. Mathematics, Physics, Metaphysics, Optics, Politics, Ethics, Pneumatics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Mechanics, Dynamics, Statics.—All these words are plural in form; in sense they are either singular or plural.

The words just noticed may be called equivocal forms, In words like alms and riches the original s of the singular is confounded with the s, the sign of the plural. In the remainder the s, the sign of the plural, is taken for a part

of the original singular. This confusion prevents the words in point from having either true singulars, like new, mean, pain; or true plurals, like riches-es, alms-es.

If the reason of this confusion be inquired into, it will be found,

1. That all the words in question are of foreign origin.

2. That in sense they are partly singular and partly plural. Alms means either a number of separate donations taken severally, or a number of separate donations dealt with as a single act of charity. In the first case the plural, in the second the singular, sense predominates.

§ 97. Plurals not ending in -s.-Besides the usual plural forms in s (father-s, son-s), there are four other methods in English of expressing a number of objects. 1. By the change of vowel.

2. By the addition of -en or -n. 3. By the addition of -er or -r.

4. By a combination of some two of the preceding methods.

§ 98. Plurals formed by a change of vowel.--This class consists in the present English of the following words:

1. Man, singular; men, plural. The vowel a changed to the vowel e.

2. Foot, sing; feet, pl. The vowel oo (sounded as the ou in could) changed to the vowel ee.

3, 4. Tooth, sing.; teeth, pl.: goose, sing.; geese, pl. The vowel oo (as in food) changed to ee as in feet.

5, 6. Mouse, louse, sing.; mice, lice, pl. The diphthong ou changed to the vowel i (as in night). The combination ce is used instead of se, for the same reason as in pence and dice, i. e. lest, if written mise, lise, the words should be pronounced mize, lize.

§ 99. Plurals formed by the addition of -en or -n.—In the present English the word oxen is the only specimen of this form in current use. In the older stages of our language the number of words in -en was much greater than at present.

§ 100. Plurals formed by the addition of -er.-In AngloSaxon the four following plurals are found; cealf-ru = calves, lamb-ru = lambs, egg-ru = eggs, cild-ru = children. The peculiarity of these is, that they are formed in -r. They are all words of the neuter gender. In certain of the provinces of England the plural form child-er still exists. This form, although absent in the current English, is necessary to be observed, since it is the basis of the word child-r-en.

§ 101. Plurals formed by a combination, &c.-Three words occur in this class.

1. Kyne = cows; a plural formed from a plural by the addition of -n; as cow, kye, ky-ne. A combination of methods 1 and 2. Kye is found in provincial English, and cy in Anglo-Saxon.

2. Children; a plural formed from a plural by the addition of -en; as child, child-er, child-er-en = children. A combination of methods 3 and 2.

3. Brethren; a plural formed from a plural by the addition of en; as brother, brether?, brether-en = brethren. A combination of methods 1 and 3.

§ 102. When the singular ends in o, the plural ends in

oes; as cargo, cargoes.

When the singular ends in y, preceded by a consonant, the plural ends in -ies; as lady, ladies; quantity, quanti

ties.

In youth, oath, truth and path, the th, though sounded in the singular as in thin, is generally sounded in the plural as in thine.

Singular.
Youth, pronounced

Plural.

Youdhz, not Youthce.

In house, the s, though sounded in the singular as in sin, is sounded in the plural as z.

houzez.

Houses is pronounced

The plural of woman is pronounced wimmen.

§ 103. Current and obsolete processes.-The present is the proper place for exhibiting the difference between the current and the obsolete processes of a language.

By adding the sound of the s in seal to the word father, we change it into father-s. Hence the addition of the sound in question is the process by which the word father is changed into fathers. The process by which or is changed into ox-en is the addition of the sound of the syllable -en.

In all languages there are two sorts of processes, those that are in operation at a certain period, and those that have ceased to operate.

In illustration of this, let us suppose that, from the Latin, Greek, French, or some other language, a new word is introduced; that it is a substantive; and that it has to be used in the plural number. The formation will be in -s, and not in -en-the habit of forming plurals in -s being current or usual, the habit of forming them in -en being obsolete.

§ 104. The Possessive Case.-In the language as it is spoken, the Possessive Case Singular is the same as the ordinary Nominative Plural-both ending in -s.

Such is the rule, to which there is only one class of exceptions. Words in ƒ form their possessive case in the sound of s in seal; as loaf's, wife's, calf's, and leaf's, &c.; sounded loafce, wifce, calfce, leafce, and not loavz, wivz, calvz, leavz. We say the wives are good-tempered, but the wife's temper is good; the loaves are well-baked, but the loaf's baking is good; the calves are well-fed, but the calf's feeding is good; the leaves are changing colour, but the leaf's colour is changing.