trousers of civilization. My first sight of a Christian Igorot boy, with sack-coat, breech-clout, standing collar, brilliant necktie and smoothly combed hair, but without the rest of the apparel usually considered proper for a complete gentleman, passing the plate in Bishop Brent's church at Baguio, will long be remembered. The constabulary soldiers recruited from the wild people wear all the uniform except the trousers, in lieu of which they wear the gee-string and a heavy copper bracelet just above the ankles.

This disinclination to wear clothes led to an amusing incident at the Exposition in Manila. It was arranged that each province should have a certain section in which to exhibit its manufacturing processes. Some of the wild people manufacture very useful and attractive articles, and it was decided that a number of these workmen should be brought to the fair. The Filipinos are very sensitive about the appearance of the wild people in public, as they believe they are a reflection upon the "culture" of the population generally. When it became known that the tribesmen were to be at the Exposition, a protest was filed against what they feared would be a shocking exhibition of wild men without modern clothing. The governor-general was induced to issue an order that all the strangers should wear pajamas, and these useful articles were duly supplied at public expense. It was like clothing the statuary in an art museum. The stalwart bronzed men accustomed to go clad only in a breech-clout, known locally as a gee-string, were each furnished with a pair of striped trousers. In the mountains, they always travel in single file, and on their first appearance in public at the Exhibition, about fifty of them started to walk solemnly along, each observing the proprieties by carrying his trousers carefully folded over his left arm.

The wild people of the mountains and the Mohammedans of the south are extremely picturesque and much more interesting to travelers than the ordinary so-called Christian Filipinos. The average person feels about as did the English traveler who on seeking official assistance in traveling about the islands said, "I want particularly to meet your interesting wild tribes. The

Christians I care little about." This perfectly natural feeling has been catered to by writers, lecturers and showmen. An ordinary citizen of Manila, Dagupan, or Loag, clothed like an American or Englishman, spending his days in merchandising, practising a profession, superintending the operation of a farm, editing a newspaper, or running for the Legislature, is far less interesting than an Igorot statue in bronze, enveloped in the restricted folds of a highly-colored gee-string, with an ambiguous reputation for eating dog and gathering sporting trophies from among the heads of his neighbors. A game of baseball in which this kind of native dives skilfully to base between the legs of an athletically inclined governor-general amply justifies a magazine article. But there is no such inspiring publicity for patient Juan de la Cruz, who toils in the rice paddy or sugar field. He and his kind are very prosaic, and as material for a lantern slide it must be conceded that the wild man is much his superior. The Igorots have been so frequently exhibited at world's fairs and other such places that many people in the United States and Europe understand that they are fair samples of the Filipinos who are so vociferously asserting their capacity for self-government, and crying for independence.

The Moros, because of their religion and peculiar characteristics, and the Igorots and other wild men, because of their picturesqueness, have thus possibly absorbed more than their share of public attention.

The picturesque eighth of the inhabitants, who are known collectively as non-Christians, have not advanced much beyond the condition of savagery. They represent a very low stage of culture and have shown little, if any, capacity for development from within. What impulse for improvement they have felt has come from without and a few of them have responded in a way which is very encouraging. The government of the wild people, with the exception of the Moros, is a comparatively simple matter, as they are entirely free from the ambitions and aspirations which complicate conditions in the Christianized provinces. The real difficulty has been to gain their confidence, and this has been

accomplished by a policy of nicely adjusted firmness and gentleness. The simplest forms of government only have been introduced among them for the purpose of establishing order and opening the country by the construction of roads and trails. The beginning of an educational system has been made and the conditions under which the people live have been greatly improved.

The other seven-eighths of the inhabitants of the Archipelago, who are known as Filipinos, occupy substantially all the cultivated parts of the country north of Mindanao. They now number about eight millions and represent nearly every stage of race culture. They are divided into seven groups, commonly called tribes, the Tagalogs, Visayans, Bicols, Ilocanos, Pampangos, Pangasines and Ibangs. They are, however, developed far beyond the stage to which the word tribe applies. Indeed, the use of the word in this connection suggests the character in one of Anthony Trollop's novels of English clerical life who divided all people into "Methodists, Baptists and other savage tribes."

The Tagalogs and Visayans constitute the majority of the civilized Filipinos. The former occupy the central part of Luzon; the latter, Cebu, Panay, Negros, and the other islands of the central group. The Ilocanos live along the northwest coast of Luzon; the Pampangos and Pangasines on the great plains between Manila and the Gulf of Lingayan; the Bicols in the extreme south of Luzon; and the Ibangs in the Cagayan Valley in the northeast of Luzon.

These people speak different dialects and have many different habits, customs and characteristics, but their lack of homogeneity has been greatly exaggerated. The things in which they are alike are much more vital and important than those in which they differ. The former are racial characteristics, and the latter the result of isolation and environment. They are all Malays with typical Malayan traits. When the Spaniards arrived, they found them occupying the coast line plains and valleys, having

driven their predecessors into the mountains. At that time they numbered about six hundred fifty thousand and have thus multiplied about fourteen times in three centuries.

Recent investigations have reduced the dialects which are spoken by the Filipinos from sixty to sixteen, and these contain so many common words as to suggest their development from a common ancestral language. While differing widely in their vocabularies, they have a common Malayan origin and a uniform structural basis. Early contact with the Hindu civilization which once flourished in Java and built the marvelous temples which may yet be seen in the midst of the tropical jungles, left a mark upon the language. It is probable that it was from this source that the people who came with the last wave of emigration acquired their knowledge, such as it was, of writing and the other arts which elevated them above the people of their own race that they drove into the mountains.

Once established in the Philippines, the Malays seem to have lost their roving habits and acquired the strong attachment for place which is such a noted characteristic of the present people. Pocketed in particular localities with water or mountain boundaries, they soon became strangers and the enemies of their neighbors. The natural order of development was inverted. Local life was petty, intensive and ingrown. No large political life was developed. Neither the Tagalogs nor Visayans were ever organized as a political unit. Each represented merely a certain number of people who spoke a common dialect, occupied contiguous territory and had a sort of community feeling of superiority over their neighbors. The barangay was the most important political body which the Filipinos were ever able to develop. Each cell of what normally should have united into a body politic continued to live its own insignificant life. Nothing was united, nothing coordinated. Living thus in almost complete isolation, each little community developed local peculiarities and added local words to its dialect.

This inability to form political combinations and thus influence and control large masses of men seems to be an inherent weakness

of the Malay character. The people of the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the islands to the west have never united in any great numbers for the pursuit of a common political aim and never at all, except when dominated by a religious motive such as is supplied by Islamism. In the Philippines only the Moros ever recognized allegiance to a chief of more than local importance. In 1565 the royal officers at Cebu wrote to Philip II that the natives "recognize no ruler, therefore if their chiefs try to force them they will do nothing else than go to another island." According to Andres de Mirandaola they were "a race who lived without any respect for rulers." In 1569 Martin de Rada wrote to the viceroy of Nueva España that the people of the Philippines had no king or sovereign and were a race "the most arrogant that was ever seen and the slaves were the freest that can be imagined for they do only what they wish.”22 Such a people without organization could offer no effective resistance to the Spaniards.

A great deal has been written about the customs, manners, superstitions and characteristics of the Filipinos. Scientists, travelers, officials civil and military, churchmen, old residents and casual tourists have published the results of their observations. Since the American occupation many such books and articles have appeared, written by travelers, soldiers, sailors and newspaper men-a few carefully and conscientiously prepared, but the greater number apparently the work of the impressionist or cubist schools.

Notwithstanding the influence of the Spaniards and the Christian religion, it is remarkable how little the Filipinos have changed during the time from the arrival of the Spaniards in 1560 until their departure in 1898. The ordinary Filipino of pure blood seems to have retained nearly all of his racial characteristics. The old savage customs have been abandoned, but the writings of the early narrators, such as Pigafetta and Morga, describe very accurately the provincial people of to-day. It is 22 B & R., XXXIV, pp. 201, 214.