and after years of imprisonment died while on his way to Mexico for trial.

During the reign of Governor Vargas, Archbishop Pardo was banished from Manila." When restored to his See after the retirement of Vargas, he proceeded to equalize matters by imposing the severest penalties possible upon all of his enemies. He ordered the governor to adjure his past acts, to "wear a penitent's garb, to place a rope about his neck, and to carry a lighted candle to the doors of the Cathedral and churches of Parion, San Gabriel, and San Binondo on every feast day during the four months."

Vargas claimed privilege on the ground that he was a Cavalier of the Military Order of St. James, but the archbishop refused to recognize the privilege and desisted only when the new governor threatened to send him again into banishment. other such instances might be cited.

Many

After a corrupt system of goveinment has been thoroughly established the way of the reformer is difficult and dangerous. The beneficiaries of the system feel that they have vested rights. By the beginning of the eighteenth century, financial abuses in all parts of the government of the Philippines had become so general as to make the work of reform extremely difficult. Most of the prominent officials were involved. To the interested the mass of corruption was sacrosanct, and woe to him who assumed to touch it with irreverent hands.

Ferdinand de Bustamente" was the victim of an attempt to protect the public treasury. While neither tactful nor considerate, nor always right, he seems in a large way to have had the good of the colony at heart. Having discovered irregularities in the management of the public funds, he caused the delinquents, some of them of high degree, to be imprisoned and prosecuted. The monastic orders furnished refuge in the churches to the

5 For an account of Pardo's controversy with the audiencia, see B. & R., XXXIX, p. 149.

1717 to 1719. For an account of his government and death, see B. & R., XLIV, p. 148.

enemies of the governor. Certain influential men, including many advocates, signed a statement which denied the right of the governor to arrest a certain notary who had taken refuge in the Cathedral. Bustamente thereupon lost his head and injudiciously threw the archbishop and the lawyers into jail. The feelings of the people were outraged by the imprisonment of the archbishop. The refugees came out of the churches and joined a mob which marched against the palace. The soldiers, when ordered to fire on the rioters, lowered their arms before the crucifixes and images of the saints which were carried by the friars before the advancing mob. The ill-fated governor and his son met the attack almost alone on the stairway of the palace, and both fell mortally wounded.

After his death every effort was made to blacken the character of Bustamente. So many charges were filed during the period of his residencia that the commission was overwhelmed and never made a report.

The capture of Manila by the British during the Seven Years' War was but an incident of that memorable struggle, but it might well have changed the course of history in the Orient. Had England retained possession of the Archipelago the new era would have opened at least a century earlier than it did." The orders as originally issued directed General William Draper to capture Manila and then establish a permanent settlement in the island of Mindanao "which could be kept after peace." The news of the capture did not reach Europe until after the signing of the definitive treaty. Manila was therefore not mentioned in that instrument, and was returned to the Spaniards without any compensation. The king of Spain dishonored the drafts drawn by the authorities at Manila to cover part of the indemnity. It is probable that had the news of the capture reached

In a manifesto issued by the Filipino junta at Hong Kong about the time the American fleet sailed for Manila, the following appears in their list of grievances: "We were compelled to spill our blood by Simon de Anda against the English, who in any case would have made better rulers than the Spaniards."

Europe at an earlier date, Mindanao, at least, would have remained British territory.

There is a striking resemblance between the methods followed by the British in the seventeenth century and by the Americans more than one hundred years later. Had the latter withdrawn their troops after suppressing the native revolt, the resemblance, barring the sacking of the city by the British, would have been even greater. In both instances events followed almost the

same course.

On September 23, 1762, just a week after the fall of Habana, thirteen ships with about two thousand troops under the command of General William Draper entered Manila Bay and demanded the surrender of the city. The Spaniards had not yet learned of the existence of war between England and Spain and were, as usual, unprepared for defense. The governor was absent and Archbishop Rojo was in charge. After the surrender of the city the usual controversy arose as to who was responsible for its unprepared condition. One of the ecclesiastics wrote to Madrid that "Manila well deserved it, not indeed because of its total lack of Christian procedure, but singularly because of its cursed neglect of politics, as if the whole world had to respect and fear us because of our boasting that we are Spaniards."

Archibishop Rojo should not be blamed for the situation which the British found in Manila. The city was not properly fortified or manned for defense against an attack by an European power. It was a short-sighted policy, but it was the policy of Spain and not of the individual who was so unfortunate as to hold power at the time of the invasion. La Gentil says that the garrison was composed of Mexicans whom he described as good enough indeed but of little skill in the military art, "as they had never fired a gun."

8 Baltasar Vela to Antonio Gonzales in Madrid, July 24, 1764, B. & R., XLIX, p. 288. That Spain continued to rely on the terror of her name appears from the history of the Spanish-American War. After that war the usual controversy arose as to who was responsible for the lack of preparation for the defense of Manila.

The archbishop has been severely criticized for his anxiety to surrender the city. It should be remembered that he was an ecclesiastic, not a soldier. If we may rely upon the narrative and journal kept by him at the time, it appears that he took advantage of all available means of defense. One faction, more anxious to protect property than honor, criticized the archbishop-governor for not surrendering the city earlier, thus saving it from sack and pillage. Simon de Anda Salazar, an energetic magistrate of the audiencia, placed himself at the head of the faction which was determined to resist to the end, and with a single servant escaped to the provinces, where he raised the standard of revolt against the archbishop's authority and policy. While preparing for an attack on the city, the British had the good fortune to intercept and capture one of the galleons which was arriving from Mexico, thereby securing several millions of specie which were being imported for the support of the government and the use of Manila merchants.

Although there were no adequate means for defending the city, the garrison made a brave defense. After some very severe fighting, the city capitulated, and on October 6, the British flag was raised over Fort Santiago.10

The terms granted required the payment of an indemnity of four million pesos, of which one-half was to be paid at once and the balance in bills drawn on Madrid. It was soon found that so much money could not be raised in Manila. Much property had been destroyed and many valuables had been removed to the provinces. The heavy contributions levied on the people, together with the silver plate, church ornaments, and even the archbishop's ring and breast cross, produced but one-half of the required amount. An arrangement was then made by which

9 For the details of the attack, etc., see Draper's Journal, B. & R., XLIX, pp. 81-101. For the Spanish account of the capture, see Rojo's Journal, ibid., pp. 105-132; Rojo's Narrative, ibid., pp. 177-261. "The Indians, though armed with bows and lances, flung themselves with desperate valor on our lines, and died by scores, biting the bayonets like wild beasts. But their valor was ill supported." Lord, The Lost Possessions of England, p. 175.

10 The demand was for the cession to his Britannic Majesty of Manila and of the island of Luzon and the recognition of the British sovereignty until the peace between France and England should decide the fate of the islands.

the British were to receive on account the cargo of another galleon which was daily expected to arrive, providing that it had not been captured by their forces before the date of capitulation. But this galleon was not destined to fall into the hands of the British, as its treasure had already been landed on the northern coast and carried inland and delivered to Anda.

The archbishop had great difficulty in compelling the friars to deliver their money and treasure, and in the end the British became exasperated and overran the country north and south of Manila. In the meantime the redoubtable Anda, who claimed to be governor and captain-general, by legal right, as the archbishop and the other magistrates were prisoners of war and in the eye of the Spanish law civilly dead, supported by the Jesuits," had raised a considerable force in the provinces.

The natives were willing to accept Anda as the representative of Spanish authority, but an assembly convened at Manila at the instance of the British commander proclaimed him a seditious person who deserved the death penalty. In the fight which followed, the natives were severely punished, but the British were forced to reduce their outposts and practically to withdraw within the limits of the city of Manila. The British commander who insisted that the archbishop should be recognized as the real representative of Spanish authority, now offered a reward for the head of Anda, and proclaimed his troops as "canaille and robbers." Anda responded promptly in kind and for a time belligerent operations were confined to abusive proclamations.

In the meantime Anda's actions had been approved by the king. The friars now came to his assistance and the position of the British was far from pleasant. Fortunately in January a frigate arrived with the news of an European armistice and in August the terms of the preliminaries of peace were received. General Draper, acting under secret instructions from the king, had already handed the country over to a Mr. Dawson Drake, of the Honorable East India Company's service, and returned to England, where, like most of the men who have won territory

11 This was one of the grounds for the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768.