emperor of China with many new instruments, of which a catalogue may be found in Duhalde's China. This was at the intercession of some Jesuit missionaries, chiefly father Verbiest, whom he appointed his chief observer. The instruments are exceedingly large; but the divisions are less accurate, and, in some respects, the contrivance is less commodious than in those made in Europe at this period. The chief are, an armillary zodiacal sphere, of six Paris feet diameter; an azimuthal horizon, six feet diameter; a large quadrant six feet radius; a sextant eight feet radius; and a celestial globe, six feet dia

meter.

EUROPEAN OBSERVATORIES.-Copernicus is stated to have been the first European who set an instrument in the meridian: this was in the year 1540. Twenty years after William I. of Hesse furnished his observatory at Cassel, under the direction of Tycho Brahe and Bailly, regarded then as the first regular erection of the kind in Europe.

Tycho Brahe's own observatory, or that of Cranbourg, on the Huen Island in the Sound, was the next in order. He projected this erection for the purpose of making a new cataIngue of the fixed stars; a determination to which he was induced by the appearance of a new and very bright star in Cassiopeia, which filled all Europe with astonishment and consternation. The first stone was laid in August 1576, under the immediate patronage of Frederick II. of Denmark; and it contained a noble set of instruments until the beginning of the last century. Among them was a celestial globe six feet in diameter. The whole town, however, has long since been a heap of ruins: this globe was burnt in the general conflagration of Copenhagen in 1728. His celebrated sextant has been transferred as a constellation to the heavens, and is marked sextans or sextans Uraniæ, under the breast of Leo.

The other European observatories we shall describe in alphabetical order, with the exception of those of our own country, which will close the article.

Avignon. Here an observatory was built by father Bonfa, so early as 1683, and it has been occupied by a succession of learned ecclesiastics, who have frequently contributed to the enlargement of astronomical science.

At Berlin Frederick I. of Prussia founded an observatory in 1711, under the direction of Leibnitz, president of the Royal Academy of Sciences. It is a large square tower. Here Grischow, Kies, and La Lande, made various observations. The last astronomer says that, about the year 1752, he raised enormous pillars here, to which he attached the mural quadrants, north and south. (Memoires de l'Academie, 1751 and 1752.) Frederick II. added a fine building, where the Academy of Sciences holds its assemblies. The late astronomer royal, M. Bode, distinguished himself as the publisher of one of the most complete celestial atlases extant, entitled Uranographia, which is accompanied with a well arranged catalogue and history of the stars observed here.

At Beziers (France) the bishop's tower was

converted to an observatory, where observations have been made by Bouillet on Saturn's ring.

Bologna observatory was erected in the palace of the Institute in 1714, by count Marsigli; pope Benedict XIV. giving the instruments. Here, it may be remembered, is the celebrated meridian line of Cassini. See BOLOGNA.

At Bourdeaux is an observatory seventy-five feet high, and twenty feet square, situated exactly in latitude 45°, or the middle of our temperate zone. Here Turgot procured a complete set of observations to be made on the length of a pendulum vibrating seconds.

Brest has an observatory on a small scale for the naval academy; and plans have been formed for a larger edifice.

At Bremen, in Dr. Oiler's observatory, were discovered the new planets Pallas and Vesta.

Brunswick has an observatory where the determination of the orbits of the new planets, and other valuable observations, have been made by Dr. Gauss.

Cadiz has an observatory attached to the marine academy, and furnished both with English and French instruments. The observations made here by Varilla have been published in two vols.

Carthagena has also an observatory.

At Copenhagen an astronomical tower was built by Christian IV. in 1656, at the suggestion of Longomentames. Mr. Bugga, formerly the astronomer here, mentions various observatories in Greenland, Iceland, and Norway, as having been at various times erected by the Danish monarchs.

At Dantzic a former observatory was used by Hevelius, who has described it in his Machena Celestis. The modern one was built in 1778.

At Dijon M. Necker converted the tower of the king's lodge into an observatory, where the able Bertnard made numerous published observations.

Dorpat in Livonia has an observatory, under the able direction of M. Struve, which has been supplied, in the most handsome manner, with fine instruments by the emperor of Russia. M. Frauenhofer of Munich has been occupied for two years in completing, for this observatory, an achromatic telescope, fourteen feet in focal length, and with an aperture of nine inches. You may judge from this,' says M. Struve, in a letter to baron de Zach, how much our liberal government does for astronomy. Our observatory is particularly indebted to the curator of our university, M. General Comte de Lievan, who has not only provided it with every thing that is excellent and perfect in the way of instruments, but has also built a commodious house for the astronomer. He has likewise ordered a great meridian circle, similar to that of Gottingen, Munich, and Konigsberg: a great repeating circle; and a universal instrument, &c., all from the manufactory of MM. Reichenbach and Ertel of Munich.'-Zach's Corres. Astro. vol.viii. p. 370.

Florence has an observatory, erected by the magnificent cardinal Ximenes, which contains a quadrant by Toscanelli, the largest known, and with which he made observations to prove the secular diminution of the obliquity of the eclip

tic. At his death he bequeathed the whole to the Jesuits' college. In 1772 the grand duke Leopold built an observatory, which M. Fontana superintended, and in 1786 it was furnished with several fine instruments of Ramsden's.

Gottingen observatory has long been celebrated by the labors of Mayer: it has lately been refitted with instruments under the direction of M. Gauss. See our article GOTTINGEN. Here in 1804 the planet Juno was discovered.

Leipsic had an old tower of great firmness couverted into an observatory in 1788.

At Lilienthal, near Bremen, is a well-furnished observatory, which was long under the direction of M. Schroeter, who has made many valuable observations on the phases of the moon and planets.

Lisbon observatory was erected by John V. in 1728, at the royal palace. In 1726 some good observations were made at another observatory here belonging to the Jesuits. Vide Philos. Trans. XXXV. A second royal observatory was constructed at the Chateau de St. George, Lisbon, in 1787, by Custodio Gomez.

At Lyons the college observatory was built on an eminence by Father St. Benet, and is a fine edifice.

At Malta was formerly the most southerly observatory in Europe, viz. in 30° lat. It was erected under the auspices of the grand master Eman. de Rohan in 1783, furnished with the best instruments, and placed under the able direction of the Chevalier d'Angos. In 1789 the valuable papers of this observatory were accidentally burnt, and the instruments greatly damaged.

The Marseilles observatory is chiefly famous for the observations of M. de Sylvabelle.

At Milan is an observatory built by the Jesuits in 1765, chiefly at the expense of father Pallavinci, under the direction of the celebrated Boscovich. The instruments were selected both in England and France, and Cesaris, Oriani, and Reggio, have been distinguished observers here. At Montauban the duc de la Chappelle erected an observatory, where he made many interesting observations, particularly of the transit of Venus

over the sun in 1769.

Montpelier has long had an observatory erected on one of the towers of the city. M. Ratte and M. Poitevin have here distinguished themselves.

At Moscow, before the conflagration, was an observatory, furnished with instruments by Cary of the Strand: whether it has survived that catastrophe we have not heard.

An observatory was built at Nuremberg in the year 1678, and another in 1692. M. Zimmert and M. Wuzzelbau have been able authors and accurate observers, connected with these establishments.

At Padua the observatory was originally a tower of the tyrant Egellin's, and contained, in the thirteenth century, the dungeons in which he placed his prisoners in the civil wars of the period. On its being converted into an observatory in the year 1769 Boscovich wrote the following lines:

At Palermo an observatory has been constructed in the former palace of the viceroy. Father Piazzi collected the instruments in Paris and England in 1788 and 1789, among which are a fine transit instrument, and a complete circle, by Ramsden. The first labors of this astronomer were directed to the formation of a catalogue of stars, and, as a foundation, he chose Wollaston's catalogue, and, as his chief points of reference, Dr. Maskelyne's thirty-six stars. In the prosecution of this task he discovered, in 1801, the new planet Ceres, so named in honor of Sicily.

The Paris royal observatory was begun in 1667, and finished in 1672. It is 160 feet in front length, 120 broad, and ninety feet high, having a terrace at top; and cellars underneath ninety feet deep. There is said to be neither iron nor wood employed in its construction. Here was not long since an old thermometer of M. de la Hire, which stood always at the same height; thereby showing that the temperature of the place remained always the same. The mural quadrant used by La Lande here, has been, in imitation of that of Tycho Brahe, transferred to the heavens as a constellation, situated between Hercules, Bootes, and the Serpent, as the quadrans muralis, containing forty stars. New rooms and vaults have been added to this building since 1788, as well as a large transit instrument and circle by Ramsden, and three observers were established here by the unfortunate Louis XVI. On the first floor of the west tower is a geographical chart, twenty-seven feet in diameter, traced under the direction of Cassini.

The astronomers of the academy had besides several private observatories erected in different parts of Paris,' says La Lande, 'as the royal observatory was not sufficient for all. That of M. le Monnier has been, from the year 1742, in the garden of the Capuchins. That of the marine, which Joseph de l'Isle used in 1748 at the Hotel de Clugny, where I labored during two years, is at present (1792) occupied by M. Messier. That of la Caille still exists in the Mazarin College. I, as well as M. d'Agelet, have made several observations there since his death. That of the palace of Luxembourg is above the port royal. Joseph de Lisle observed there, and I likewise occupied it for some time. That of M. Pingré at the abbey of St. Génévieve was built in 1756. There is one of M. Cagnoli's, Rue de Richlieu, which this able astronomer built at his own expense in 1785, when he still resided at Paris. The observatory of the military school, built for M. Jeaurat in 1768, was occupied afterwards by M. d'Agelet. The late M. Bergeret, receiver-general of finances, constructed in 1774, at my request, a large mural quadrant of eight English feet radius, the last and the best instrument made by the celebrated Bird, the loss of whose talents we still regret. This instrument was obtained by the military academy, as well as an excellent transit instrument, and a

parallactic telescope. M. d'Agelet made a great number of observations there from 1778 to 1785, when he left it to make a voyage round the world with la Perouse. In 1788 the changes made in the military school occasioned the demolition of this observatory; but it has been rebuilt, by my desire and care, a little more to the west, with all necessary attention and expense, so that it is the most complete observatory we have at Paris. Having received the direction of it, I began, in 1789, to make the following ob⚫servations. M. le François la Lande, my relation and pupil, who is a very good astronomer, has also made a prodigious number of observations, and we observed, in 1791, more than 10,000 northern stars with excellent instruments. This work was very much wanted, and I consider it as one of the most important and difficult things that could be undertaken for astronomy.

An observatory was built in 1775 at the royal college for the use of the professor of astronomy of this celebrated school. M. Geoffroy d'Assy built, in 1788, an observatory at his house, Rue de Paradis, and it will become one of the most useful by the zeal and intelligence of M. de Lombre.'

The St. Petersburg observatory is one of the most magnificent and well-furnished in Europe, and was an erection of the czar Peter I. shortly after his visit to England. It has three stories, and is 130 feet high. M. de l'Isle, according to La Lande, has made a number of excellent obser

vations here.

At Pisa is an observatory in the form of a tower. It was erected in 1730, at the expense of the university, and supplied with beautiful apparatus made by Sisson, Short, Graham, &c. Perelli and Slope, who published an excellent collection of observations in 1789, made here for

many years.

Ai Rome, cardinal Zelada, at his own expense, constructed, on the southern side of the Roman college, a fine observatory, which contains the large sector of Boscovich, and instruments by Ramsden and Dollond; the abbé Calandrelli observed here with great accuracy for many years. In different parts of Rome are several minor establishments of this kind.

At Secberg, near Gotha, is one of the most complete observatories in the world. It has a large transit and two murals of eight feet radius, by Ramsden, and a circle of eight feet diameter. Baron Zach, appointed in 1788, was the first professor. In 1798 he was visited here by La Lande and all the great astronomers of Germany.

The Stockholm observatory was founded by the Academy of Sciences of that city, in 1746. It is situated on a hill north of the town, and has a good collection of English instruments. Wargentein and Nicarder here have been celebrated professors.

At Strasburg, Brackenhoffer, professor of mathematics, had an observatory over the city gates, and was succeeded by Herzenschneider.

The observatory of M. Darquier at Toulouse, has been distinguished by his zeal and ability. Observatories have also been built in this city by M. Gauprey and M. Bonrapos. The principal one was, in 1813, under the care of Vidal.

At Turin, father Beccaria erected an observatory; and in 1790 a larger one was built here by the king of Sardinia, at the Royal College of Nobles, and the care of it given to the abbé Caluso.

At Venice is the observatory of father Panigai, and the small one near the town by Miotti. At Verona Cagnoli erected, in 1787, an observatory, furnished with the best instruments, at his own expense. He has made many accurate and important observations here on the precession of the equinoxes, and on the places of 473 northern, and twenty-eight southern stars.

The university observatory of Vienna was founded by the empress Maria Theresa, in the year 1755, who furnished it with many superb instruments. There is another now belonging to the academical college, which was built in 1735, and endowed by the Jesuits. It is furnished with very fine instruments by English artists, and has had a succession of very learned observers. The reputation of the university observatory was maintained for many years by the abbé Maximilian Hell, who conducted the Vienna Ephemeris.

The observatory at Upsal, built and endowed in 1739 by the king of Sweden, was first superintended by the learned Celsius, who has been followed by Hooker and Wargentin, the author of the Tables of Jupiter's Satellites.

At Utrecht an ancient tower was, in 1726, converted into an observatory. Here the celebrated Van Muschenbroek observed for many years.

At Wilna, in Poland, is a splendid establishment of this kind, originally built and well endowed by the countess Puzynia, a lady of considerable astronomical attainments. Being completed in 1753, the king of Poland, by letters patent, gave it the title of a Royal Observatory, and appointed the Jesuit Poezobat astronomer royal. In 1788 a second erection was added under his direction, and several new instruments, by Ramsden.

OBSERVATORIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Having supplied every part of Europe with some of the most important and accurate instruments which these erections contain, it was to be expected that within our own island some splendid and useful establishments of the same description should be found. Nor will the scientific enquirer after them be disappointed.

First in importance, perhaps, among the observatories of the world, is that of Greenwich. It was built and endowed in the year 1676, by order of king Charles II., at the instance of Sir Jonas Moore, and Sir Christopher Wren: the former being surveyor-general of the ordnance: a circumstance from which the office of astronomer royal has been placed under that depart

ment.

This observatory was at first furnished with various accurate and beautiful instruments; particularly a noble sextant of seven feet radius, with telescopic sights; and the astronomers royal have always been distinguished. The person to whom the province of observing was first committed was Mr. John Flamsteed; a man who, as Dr. Halley expresses it, seemed born for the

employment. During fourteen years he watch ed the motions of the planets with unwearied diligence, especially those of the moon. In 1690 having provided himself with a mural arch of near seven feet radius, made by his assistant Mr. Abraham Sharp, he began to verify his catalogue of the fixed stars (which had hitherto depended altogether on the distances measured with the sextant) after a new and very different manner, viz. by taking the meridian alt tudes, and the moments of culmination, or in other words the right ascension and declination. And he was so well pleased with this instrument that he discontinued almost entirely the use of the sextant. In the space of upwards of forty years this astronomer collected an immense number of observations, which may be consulted in his Historia Cœlestis Britannica, published in 1725; the principal part of which is the Britannic catalogue of the fixed stars.

On his death, in 1719, Mr. Flamsteed was succeeded by Dr. Halley, and he by Dr. Bradley in 1742, and this last by Mr. Bliss in 1762.

On the demise of Mr. Bliss, in 1765, the office devolved on Dr. Nevil Maskelyne, whose valuable observations have been published, from time to time, under the direction of the Royal Society. Of these observations La Lande says, in his Astronomy (vol. ii. page 121), Le recueil le plus moderne et le plus précieux de tous est celui de M. Maskelyne, astronome royal d'Angleterre, qui commence à 1765, et qui forme déja deux volumes en folio jusqu'à 1786. La precision de ces observations est si grande, qu'on trouve souvent la même seconde pour l'ascension droite d'une planete déduite de différentes étoiles, quoiqu'on y emploie la mesure du temps.' His catalogue of fundamental stars is an invaluable treasure. These and his other numerous and various improvements in this science, made during the forty-six years he was astronomer royal, entitle him to the most distinguished rank among both critical and practical astronomers.

Dr. Maskelyne died in the spring of 1811, and was succeeded by Mr. J. Pond, F. R. S., the translator of La Place's Exposition du Systême du Monde.

The establishment here consists of two principal buildings, one of which is the observatory, and the other the residence of the astronomer royal. The observatory is an oblong edifice, running east and west, containing four rooms, or apartments on the ground-floor. It was erected on the site of the ancient moated tower of duke Humphrey, uncle to Henry VI., and the first stone of it was laid August 10th, 1675, by Mr. Flamsteed. It is situated on the highest eminence of Greenwich Park, about 160 feet above low water mark; the soil being a flinty gravel, through which the rain soon passes, and thus the atmosphere is generally dry which contributes both to the preservation of the instruments, as well as to the uniformity of refraction.

The first, or most easterly apartment has been fitted up for the reception of a very fine transit circle, by Troughton, and a clock of great value by Hardy. The next apartment is the transit room: it has a double sloping roof, with sliding shutters, which are opened both north and south,

with great ease, by pulleys. The transit instrument, which is eight feet long, and the axis three feet, is suspended on two stone pillars. This instrument is famous as having been used by Halley Bradley, and Maskelyne. It was originally made by Bird, and has been improved by Dollond and Troughton. The astronomical or transit clock, which is attached to a stone pillar, was made by Graham, and improved by Earnshaw. The third apartment is the assistant observer's library, and the western apartment of the building is the quadrant room. Here is erected a stone pier, running north and south, to which are attached two mural quadrants, of eight feet radius each. That on the eastern face, which observes the southern meridian, was made by Bird, and the other, which observes the northern, by Graham. Suspended to the western wall is the zenith sector, with which Dr. Bradley made those observations at Kew and Wanstead, which led to the discoveries of the aberration of light, and the nutation of the earth's axis. South of the quadrant room is a wooden building for making occasional observations in any direction, where only the use of a telescope, and an accurate knowledge of the time, are required. It is furnished with sliding shutters on the roof and sides, to view any point of the hemisphere, and contains some excellent telescopes, particularly a forty-inch achromatic, with a triple object-glass, and a five feet achromatic, by Dollond; with a six-feet reflector by Dr Herschel.

North of the observatory, and east of the house, are two small buildings, covered with hemispherical sliding domes, in each of which is an equatorial sector, by Sisson, and a clock, by Arnold. These are chiefly used for observing comets. Over the dwelling apartments is a large octagonal room, which contains a great variety of astronomical instruments, and a valuable scientific library. On the top is an excellent camera obscura. In Flamsteed's time there was a well sunk in the south-east corner of what is now the garden, for the purpose of seeing the stars in the day-time, and observing the earth's annual parallax. It was 100 feet deep, with stone stairs down to the bottom: but it has been long arched over, as the improvements in the telescope have rendered it useless.

The observations made at the Royal Observatory are not only allowed to possess an unrivalled accuracy, but have been the foundation of the most important work on practical astronomy ever published; we mean the Nautical Almanack which Dr. Maskelyne commenced here in 1767. Delambre, in a paper on the life and labors of Dr. Maskelyne, read before the National Institute of France, January 4th, 1813, says He (Dr. Maskelyne) has given a catalogue of stars, not numerous, but so accurate, as to have served, almost solely for the last thirty years, as the foundation of all astronomical researches. In short, it may be said of the four volumes of Observations which he has published, that if, by a great revolution, the science should be lost, and this collection only were saved, there would be found in it sufficient materials to construct almost an entire edifice of modern astronomy; which cannot be said of any other collection.'

The Oxford observatory claims, perhaps, our next attention; it was founded in 1772 by funds bequeathed by Dr. Radcliff, on a grant of land from the duke of Marlborough. Here are some very excellent telescopes and clocks, by Dr. Herschel, Dollond, and Shelton, and a fine transit instrument ten feet long, which is said to have cost 150 guineas; the zenith sector 200, and the two mural quadrants 600 guineas; it was built under the direction of Dr. Hornsby, professor of astronomy, who observed here for many years. The observations are all registered, and have consisted chiefly of the right ascensions and zenith distances of the sun, moon, planets, and fixed

stars.

At Cambridge there have long been small observatories at Christchurch, Trinity, St. John's &c.; but the noble plan for erecting one upon a scale worthy the scientific fame of the university has been at last completed. See our article As

TRONOMY.

The Portsmouth observatory, at the Royal Marine Academy, was first erected and placed under the superintendance of Mr. Bailey, a former assistant astronomer at Greenwich, who accompanied Cook in his latter voyages. It has been particularly useful in regulating the timekeepers of vessels. Christ's Hospital and Somerset House have also observatories attached on a small scale.

The late Dr. Herschel's observatory at Slough; stands, perhaps, at the head of our private establishments of this kind. His larger instruments are in the open air; and the celebrated forty-feet telescope contains a mirror of a ton weight; and this great instrument, with nearly an additional ton of cases, &c., is five feet in diameter, and is managed by a very slight force. The top is suspended by ropes from very lofty ladder-work. Thus, by a system of wheels, pinions, racks, and pulleys, the motions, both horizontal and vertical, are given, and any celestial object is readily and commodiously viewed. It was finished in 1789, and on the first trial a new satellite of Saturn was discovered. The great speculum of this noble instrument is forty-nine inches and a half in diameter; its polished surface forty-eight inches,-its thickness three inches and a half, and its weight, when newly cast, 2118 lbs. The tube was thirty-nine feet four inches long, and four feet ten inches in diameter, and every part of it was made of rolled or sheet iron, united without rivets, by a species of seal ing used in making the iron-funnels for stoves. The thickness of the iron was less than the thirtysixth part of an inch, and a square foot weighed about fourteen ounces. Hence, it was so light, that a wooden one would have exceeded it in weight at least 1000 lbs. It magnifies 6450 times. La Lande speaks with great admiration of this instrument. Other telescopes of various sizes are mounted around; and two smaller ones have discovered six comets. That by which in 1781 the Dr. first saw the Georgium Sidus has been made a constellation in the heavens between Gemini, the Lynx, and Auriga, and contains eighty-one stars. In Bode's Atlas it is engraved with its apparatus, and marked 'Telescopium Herschelli.

In addition to our memoir of this great astronomer, we may observe, that the subject of the construction of the heavens, which Dr. Herschel had made entirely his own, formed the principal topic of his later communications to the royal Society. In 1814 he published in the Transactions his Astronomical Observations relating to the sidereal part of the heavens, and its connexions with the nebulous part. He supposes, in this paper, that the various nebulosities which fill the heavens are condensed by attraction, and converted into stars; that stars previously formed sometimes attract nebulcus matter, and increase in size, and that neighbouring stars gradually ap proach each other, and constitute globular clusters. This paper was followed, in 1817, by Observations_tending to investigate the local arrangement of the Celestial Bodies in space, and to determine the extent and condition of the Milky Way; which contains much interesting discussion, and in which its author concludes, that not only our sun, but all the stars we can see with the eye, are deeply immersed in the milky way, and form a component part of that immense nebula. The last paper which Dr. Herschel wrote on this subject, and indeed the last which he communicated to the Royal Society, was entitled Astronomical Observations and Experiments selected for the purpose of ascertaining the relative distances of Clusters of Stars, and of investigating how far the power of our Telescopes may be expected to reach into Space, when directed to ambiguous celestial Objects. From these observations our author concludes that a star of the first magnitude would just come to be visible by the naked eye, if removed to twelve times its distance, and by the most powerful telescope hitherto constructed, if removed to 2300 times its distance. Yet such a telescope still shows stars in the milky way at the utmost limits of their visibility. This extraordinary assemblage of stars is therefore equally fathomless by our eyes and by our finest telescopes. Conceiving, however, that the united lustre of sidereal systems may reach us from a still greater distance in space, Dr. Herschel estimates their distance by the aperture of the speculum, which just resolves them into stars, and in this way he has estimated the distances of forty-seven clusters. Such clusters are again taken as connecting links with such ambiguous objects as cannot be resolved by the telescope. Resolvable clusters are actually found to put on similar appearances with inferior telescopes, and hence we may compare their distances with those of the former kind, by the same principles as those with the nearest fixed star. When objects of this kind are lost to the sight, the utmost limits of human vision seem to be obtained, and our author supposes that this must take place at about the 35,000th order of distances.

The late king's private observatory, in Richmond gardens, is an extremely beautiful structure, but the apparatus was originally very inferior. It was built, in 1768, by order of George III., who, it is said, made several observations here, particularly of the transit of Venus in 1769. It contains a transit instrument, zenith sector, and mural arc, with several good telescopes, especi