AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION order, and he has been greatly praised by the elder Scaliger and Erasmus. His chief work is De Inventione Dialectica. This was ordered by Henry VIII., in 1535, to be taught in the University of Cambridge together with the genuine Logic of Aristotle; and there is the same recommendation in the statutes of Trinity College, Oxford. Agricola attacked Scholasticism with great energy, and this alone would entitle him to a position amongst the pioneers of modern education. He was probably the first man who sought a means of educating the deaf and dumb. He was also the first to introduce the Greek language into Germany. 11 To this practical success is probably to be attributed the fact that when agricultural theory was revolutionised by the progress of chemistry the necessity of a theoretical training was less quickly recognised in England than in some foreign countries. One of the first attempts in the way of a scientific school of agriculture was made in 1795 by Thaer, at Celle, in the kingdom. of Hanover, then part of the dominions of the English Crown. The success attained by this gentleman was such that he was invited by Frederick William III. of Prussia to establish a higher agricultural college in that kingdom, and the institution he founded in 1806, at Möglin, in the Agricultural Education. Agricul- province of Brandenburg, in combination ture, with its various subdivisions and with a model farm, has been the pioneer of allied pursuits, including the tillage of the a host of similar establishments in all parts fields, horticulture, floriculture, forestry, of Germany. The agricultural academies and pastoral, dairy, and poultry farming, at Hohenheim in Würtemberg, Proskau in is the most useful and universal of all Silesia, Weihenstephan in Bavaria, Waldau branches of human industry. It is the in East Prussia, and others, were all momain source of all products employed as delled on that of Möglin. At Jena Sturm food for men and domestic animals, or as founded an institute whose pupils attended the raw materials for clothing and many the university classes in the winter, and a branches of manufacturing industry. Being course of practical training on well-mana practical art, involving a multitude of aged farms in the summer. At Poppelsapplications of the principles of most of the dorf and at Eldena there were special physical sciences (such as geology and che- agricultural academies connected with the mistry, illustrating the qualities of soils Universities of Bonn and Greifswald reand manures, meteorology, mechanics as spectively, while other academies were asapplied to agricultural machinery, veteri-sociated with the Polytechnic High Schools nary medicine and surgery as applied to of Brunswick, Carlsruhe, Darmstadt, and domestic animals, zoology and botany, &c.), Munich in Germany, and Zurich in Switagriculture cannot be pursued with advan-zerland. Nearly all the Prussian univertage in the present day without a sound theoretical as well as practical training. The recognition of this truth, which has been brought home to the dullest comprehension by the vast progress made in agricultural chemistry through the labours of Liebig, Lawes, and others, has led to the establishment in all the civilised countries of the world of numerous special institutions for the training of young men intending to take up farming or any of its allied pursuits as the business of their lives. Before the rise of chemistry the precepts of agriculture were necessarily empirical; but in this pre-scientific period the English farmer, proceeding by the 'rule of thumb' and ancestral traditions, succeeded in bringing practical farming to a wonderfully high state of perfection. The varieties of cattle, sheep, pigs, and horses bred in England surpassed anything of the kind produced elsewhere throughout the world. sities now have agricultural institutes connected with them, special attention being paid to agricultural chemistry. In addition to this highest collegiate class there exist in Germany two other grades of institutions-the middle agricultural schools and the elementary or lower grade schools. Of the last mentioned there were fiftythree in Prussia alone in the year 1878, comprising twenty-six agricultural schools open winter and summer, fourteen winter schools, three schools of pastoral farming, and ten schools of horticulture and fruit culture. The Prussian Government grants to these establishments nearly 50,0007. annually. In several other parts of Germany agricultural educational institutions are, if anything, relatively more numerous than even in Prussia. In Würtemberg, besides the higher establishments, there are 783 agricultural continuation schools, attended by upwards of seventeen thousand scholars. In Russia, in France, and in Belgium, as well as in most other Continental countries, agricultural instruction has also received great attention. Austria possessed in 1879, in addition to the Agricultural College at Vienna (with nearly five hundred students), as many as sixtyeight institutions devoted to agriculture. In France agricultural education is being promoted with energy, and in addition to agricultural schools and colleges, the French Government have appointed itinerant lecturers on agriculture. In Great Britain there are no Government institutions of this class, the field being still left to private enterprise. Chairs of agriculture, however, have been founded in some of the British universities. The Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester was founded in 1845. The students, who go through a course of two years' instruction, are partly resident, partly non-resident, the fees amounting to from 40%. a year for the latter to 807. for the former. The curriculum embraces a thorough scientific and practical training in the college classes and laboratories and on the extensive farm attached to the college. The Downton College of Agriculture was founded in 1880 for the technical training of land cultivators, agents, and surveyors. The Albert Memorial College at Framlingham devotes a part of its curriculum to agriculture, and classes for instruction in the science are also held at the School of Mines. Scotland possesses an agricultural college at Glasgow. subsequently attend as candidates either for admission to a training college or for a certificate of merit; (4) by students in training, as a special science subject, during either or both of the two years of their residence in a training college. (For full information relating to the examinations in the principles of agriculture, instituted by the Committee of Council on Education, see the Directory for Establishing and Conducting Science and Art Schools, annually issued by the Education Department: Eyre & Spottiswoode.) In Ireland the Commissioners of National Education have paid much attention to this department of education, and twenty years ago there were 166 farmschools in active operation, all with land attached ranging from two to a hundred and twenty acres. Of these nearly half (seventy-six) were workhouse agricultural schools, while forty-eight were ordinary agricultural schools. The instruction given in these, however, is only of the most elementary description, training ordinary school children in the common operations of gardening and the field. Of higher pretensions than these are the thirty-seven model agricultural schools in various parts of the island. Besides these there is one superior establishment, the Model Training Farm at Glasnevin, founded in 1838, where a hundred young men selected from the minor schools receive a more complete course of instruction. A considerable number of the students here receive board, lodging, and two years' education gratuiThe authorities of several provincial tously, with a view to becoming farm macolleges of the United Kingdom have in-nagers or stewards; while another section troduced the principles of agriculture into the course of training, and instruction in the subject is encouraged and aided with grants in the elementary schools. Under the Code, the principles of agriculture may be taken up (1) by the scholars in elementary schools, as a branch of elementary science, which is recognised as a class subject; (2) by the older scholars, in the three highest Standards, as a specific subject; (3) by pupil-teachers and assistant-teachers, as an optional subject, during the course of their engagement: if they do take it up and pass successfully at one of the (May) examinations held by the Science and Art Department, grants are made on their behalf by that Department, while their success is registered and marks allowed for it in any examination they consists of school-teachers, who in their later career have to conduct the lower classes of agricultural schools. At Templemoyle, in Derry, there is another agricultural seminary, which has turned out a thousand well-trained agriculturists in the first thirty years of its existence. The total number of pupils in all the agricultu schools and academies in Ireland is upwards of three thousand, and the expenditure involved is upwards of ten thousand a year. (See FORESTRY.) Ahn, John Frank (b. 1796, d. 1865).— In 1834 he published, in German, his Practical Method for the Rapid and Easy Study of French. The work was an immense success, and was translated into many languages. His principle was to apply to the learning of foreign languages ALCUIN -ALLEYN, EDWARD 13 the same method which a child follows in | tion to the assumption on which the whole acquiring its mother-tongue. There was theory of indices is based, viz. that the multo be no grammar to begin with, and the tiplication of a" by a" shall always give aTM+" whole was arranged in a plan of three as a result, whatever a, and m and n may courses. His method, no doubt, gave an denote. It is true that it is very common impulse to the study of modern languages. in schools to divorce the arithmetic from Alcuin (735(?)-804), an eminent ecclesi- concrete reality, and to work with the astic and reviver of learning in the latter symbols merely as symbols. But even then part of the eighth century, was born in the operations employed are only the Yorkshire. He was invited by Charlemagne writing in symbols of certain particular to assist him in his educational schemes, definite operations, which might be underand was placed at the head of the Palace stood all along, and which can be at once. School attached to the Court, where he interpreted by themselves. In algebra, on instructed Charlemagne and his family, the other hand, we look upon our operaamongst others, in rhetoric, logic, mathe- tions mainly as the manipulation of symbols matics, and divinity. Under Alcuin's di- pure and simple; and when we have arrived rections a scheme of education was drawn at results we seek interpretations of them up, which became the model for the other by comparing them with our assumptions. great schools established at Tours, Fonte- The treatise written by Diophantus in nelle, Lyons, Osnaburg, Metz, &c.--insti- the middle of the fourth century may be tutions which ably sustained the tradition taken as the foundation of Greek algebra; of education on the Continent till super- and from him and other Greeks the Araseded by the new methods and new learn- bians probably gained much of their knowing of the commencement of the university ledge. But it is to the Arabians themselves. In 801 Alcuin obtained leave to re- that Europe directly owes its knowledge of tire from court to the abbey of St. Martin algebra, as the name implies [al the, and at Tours, of which he had been appointed jabr=consolidating]. Their methods were the head. Here he remained and taught introduced into Europe by Leonardo, a. till his death in 804. A life of Alcuin by merchant of Pisa, in 1202 a.d. The first Lorenz was published in 1829, and was printed Algebra was by Lucas de Burgo, a translated into English by Slee in 1837. Minorite friar, in 1494 A.D. The first English treatise on Algebra was by Robert Recorde, teacher of mathematics and practitioner in physic at Cambridge. It was called the 'Whetstone of Wit,' and was published in 1557. As regards the method of teaching algebra important developments have taken place, and new departures have been adopted recently. On the subject of the new algebra the reader may consult Professor Chrystal's and Mr. W. Steadman Aldis's excellent text-books. era. Algebra, to use Newton's expression, is 'universal arithmetic.' Whereas arithmetic deals with particular numbers, algebra deals with numbers in general; and whereas the former treats of numbers in connection with concrete things, the latter treats of number in the abstract. These are only two of the most marked distinctions, stated broadly. There is another, which is even more fundamental. The operations of arithmetic are capable of direct interpretation per se; those of algebra are often only to be interpreted in relation to the assumptions on which they are hased. For example, in arithmetic proper the operations denoted by indices are very limited; but within those limits the interpretation is perfectly definite-they refer to certain areas, certain cubes, &c.—and it is clear that these indices must be whole numbers, with regard to which the ideas of positive and negative are inapplicable. In algebra we go beyond this, and work with indices which are fractional, and to which we do apply the ideas of positive and negative; and the operations performed can be and are interpreted; but only in rela Alleyn, Edward.-A celebrated actor, who devoted his wealth to the foundation of Dulwich College, in 1619. The college. was reconstituted by Act of Parliament in 1858. It consists of an educational and eleemosynary branch, a chapel, library, and a fine picture-gallery, the last bequeathed, in 1810, by Sir P. F. Bourgeois. The educational branch comprises the upper school and the lower school. In the upper school there are eight exhibitions of 50l. a year each, tenable for four years at the universities, or by any student of a learned or scientific profession or of the fine arts; also thirty-six scholarships of 207. a year each, awarded to boys between twelve and fourteen years of age. In the lower school gratuities of 201. and 10l. are granted, at the annual examination, to the most deserving boys then leaving the school. Alma Mater (Latin, almus, cherishing, dear), the name applied in England to the particular university which a student has attended. Alphabet is the term applied to a collection of symbols used to express the sounds that occur in a language. The term is derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, Alpha Beta, which took the Latin form Alphabetum, but that word does not occur in any prose writer before Tertullian. All alphabets may be traced back to five forms-the Egyptian, cuneiform, Chinese, Mexican or Aztec, Yacutan, and Central American. The Egyptians seem first to have invented the alphabetical system, and their earliest form was the hieroglyphics. These hieroglyphics were pictorial, and indicated words. They are sometimes spoken of as the sacred letters'; and there seem to be some cases where the hieroglyphs were used to represent articulate sounds. Derived from the hieroglyphics by a process of degradation is another set of characters, called the Enchorial (i.e. of the people). These Enchorials seem first to have been phonetic powers, perhaps syllables, then mere letters. The Phoenicians are said to have derived their symbols from the Egyptians. Our alphabet is derived from the Phoenician; and the same is true of Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, and German. But the names given by Phoenicians to letters did not represent the sounds. The Romans seem first to have named their letters from sounds, and probably the order of the letters is based on a classification of sounds, though it is now difficult to trace its development. Alumnat (alere, to nourish, med. Lat. alumnatum), the appellation of institutions in Germany where, in addition to education, board and lodging are provided for students. In the Middle Ages such institutions were connected with monasteries, and the pupils, in return for their gratuitous instruction and board, performed various services for the church and school. Maurice of Saxony founded some of the more celebrated of these schools in the sixteenth century. Alumnus is really a Latin adjective, de rived from alo, to feed, to bring up; but it is chiefly used as a substantive: (1) literally=a nursling, in this sense chiefly by Latin poets; (2) trop.= a pupil. Cicero appears first to have used it in this way in reference to the disciples of Plato. It passed from that source into our own language when Latin was so commonly used, and it still remains, whether applied to a student of his college or to a pupil of a professor or tutor. America, Education in. See LAW (EDUCATIONAL). American Universities. See UNIVER SITIES. Amoross, Don Francisco (b. in Spain 1770, d. at Paris 1848), spent his early years in the army, and saw active service. In 1803 he superintended the direction of a military institute at Madrid for the reformation of public education in Spain. He adopted the method of Pestalozzi. He was taken prisoner in 1808, at the close of the revolution, but soon released. Later he fled to France, and offered his services to Napoleon. He was made a member of the 'Society for Elementary Education 'in Paris, and published a work on the method of Pestalozzi. Soon he was able to commence a course of teaching in the capital. He had many pupils, and received government support. In 1819 a military college was founded, and he was appointed director. His method consisted in graduated exercises for full physical development, and was especially noted for the fact that this physical development was made to contribute to the unfolding of ine moral faculties. Analogy.-Reasoning by analogy commonly means inference from one case to another on the ground of resemblance. It differs from the stricter forms of logical reasoning, inasmuch as we are not certain that the points of resemblance observed are necessarily connected with the matter inferred. In many cases, too, of argument from analogy the resemblance is only slight and superficial, and this makes the reasoning still more precarious. This applies to all reasoning from facts and laws of the physical world to analogical processes in the mental and moral world, as when we illustrate the operation of acquiring knowledge by analogies with the physiological processes, digestion, assimilation, &c. Children's reasonings, before they become capable of the more exact ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS--ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES logical forms, are grounded on the perception of resemblance, and so may be described as analogical. In illustrating new subjects to children, the teacher frequently finds it necessary to resort to analogy. Great care should here be taken to choose suitable analogies, and not to strain them, so as to make them prove more than they are capable of proving. Since analogy is a defective form of reasoning, only useful where the more perfect forms are inapplicable, it should be resorted to less and less as the child's reasoning faculty develops. (On the logical use of analogy, see J. S. Mill, Logic, bk. iii. chap. xx. The use of analogy in illustrating subjects of instruction is dealt with by Isaac Taylor, Home Education, chap. xi.) Analysis and Synthesis.-By Analysis is meant the resolving of a complex whole into its parts or elements; and by Syn thesis, the reverse process of combining parts or elements into a whole. Physical analysis and synthesis are best illustrated in the chemical processes. As applied to intellectual operations the terms are somewhat ambiguous. One clear instance of analysis is supplied by abstraction, in which the mind breaks up the concrete whole given in perception into a number of constituent properties. (See ABSTRACTION.) AS supplementary to this we have a process of synthetic construction, as when the mind through the medium of verbal description forms an idea of an unknown chemical substance by a new combination of known qualities. In a somewhat loose manner, Analysis is used to denote induction, Synthesis deduction. A stricter employment of the term 'analysis' in connection with reasoning confines it to the resolution of complex effects into their separate parts, and the reference of these to their proper causes. The terms have come to be employed in education to denote a contrast of method. Thus it is customary to distinguish between an analytical and a synthetical way of teaching a language, and the meaning of the phrase grammatical analysis' has become well defined. In geometry, again, which is largely an illustration of the synthetic building up of complex ideas out of simple ones, analysis also occupies a subordinate place. While the antithesis has thus a certain significance and utility, its vague and fluctuating meaning seems to render it unfit to serve as a fundamental distinction in educational method. 16 (See Jevons, El. Lessons in Logic, xxiv.; Bain, Ed. as Science, chap. iv., and Compayré, Cours de Pédagogie, pt. ii. leçon i.) Analysis of Sentences.-Two different processes are often comprised under this term: (1) 'grammatical' analysis (parsing); (2) 'logical' analysis. The difference between them is essentially one of the degree of detail to which the analysis of the sentence is carried. Logical analysis deals with groups of words and assigns the part played by each in the structure of the sentence; parsing directs attention to the part played by each separate word and the various characters which may be ascribed to it. It follows that analysis ought to precede parsing; the broad outlines of the sentence should be marked out before the question of the function of each word is raised. Thus it is difficult to define a noun except in relation to the ideas of subject (or object); adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions cannot be truly distinguished except by consideration of their function in the sentence. Experience seems to show that children deal more naturally with groups of words ('thoughtunits') than with individual words, and find their way without serious difficulty through the outlines of the analysis of simple and compound (complex) sentences. A noun clause is to them a many-worded noun. To be able to recognise when I come' as an adverb clause is certainly easier than to assign its precise function and character to when.' This is especially applicable to the teaching of English. Owing to the loss of inflections in modern English, words do not any longer bear their character stamped upon them or tell their own tale. A large number of words may serve as various parts of speech, as Dr. Abbott has shown. The treatment of words in groups is thus imposed by the genius of the modern language, and to this fact the wide-spread adoption of analysis in English-speaking countries bears witness. Parsing may easily become an exercise worse than useless in English teaching, if it degenerates into a tedious enumeration of all the characters which may be assigned to any single word; still more if it leads to the discovery of characters in words which they do not really possess (e.g. gender in nouns); and the protest which has arisen on many sides is thoroughly justified. But |