an examination for teachers-the first held in this country. In 1873 the College took another important step, and appointed the first English Professor of the Science and Art of Education, their choice falling unanimously upon Mr. Payne, than whom no man could have been found with higher qualifications. He had always been a hard student; and, till but a few months before his death, he was wont to continue his work into the small hours of the morning. He had thus a wider culture than is usually found in schoolmasters, or, indeed, in any class of hard-worked men, and his habits of reading and writing gave him great advantages as the occupant of the newly-instituted chair, which he further illustrated by his profound belief in the present value and the future possibilities of the science of education. No work could have been more congenial to him than endeavouring to awaken in young teachers that spirit of enquiry into principles which he had found the salt of his own life in the schoolroom. And, short as his tenure of the professorship unhappily proved, he succeeded in his endeavour; and left behind him students who have learnt from him to make their practice as teachers more beneficial to others, and infinitely more pleasurable to themselves, by investigating the theory which not only explains right practice, but also points out the way to it.

The meaning of the word 'teacher,' as usually understood of one who communicates knowledge, was unsatisfactory to Jacotot and to his English disciple. What is knowledge but the abiding result of some action of the mind? Whoever causes the minds of pupils to take the necessary action teaches the pupils, and this is the only kind of teaching which Mr. Payne would hear of; thus the paradox of Jacotot, that a teacher who understood his business could teach what he did not know,' was seen to point to a new conception of the teacher's function. The teacher is not one who 'tells,' but one who sets the learner's mind to work, directs it, and regulates its rate of advance. In order to tell,' one needs nothing beyond a form of words which the pupils may reproduce with or without comprehension. But to 'teach,' in Payne's sense of the word, a vast deal more was required: an insight into the working of the pupil's mind, a power of calling its activities into play

and of directing them to the needful exercise, a perception of results, and a knowledge how to render those results permanent. 'Such,' to quote the ipsissima verba of his friend, the Rev. R. H. Quick, ‘was Mr. Payne's notion of the teacher's office, and this notion lies at the root of all that he said and wrote about instruction. It would be useless to attempt to decide how far the conception was original with him. "Everything reasonable has been thought already," says Goethe. Mr. Payne, as we have seen, was always eager to declare his obligations to Jacotot. The same notion of the teacher is found in the utterances of other men, especially of Pestalozzi and Fröbel. But when such a conception becomes part and parcel of a mind like Mr. Payne's, it forthwith becomes a fresh force, and its influence spreads to others.'

Mr. Payne took a lively and active interest in several of the most important movements, the purposes of which were identical or kindred with his own; such, for instance, as the Women's Education Union, and the Girls' Public School Company, the improvement of women's education having long been one of his most cherished objects. He studied profoundly the methods and systems of all who have obtained celebrity as educators, and the Kindergarten system of Fröbel was one in which he took a keen interest. He was especially interested in the history of the development of the English language, and the characteristics of the different dialects; and more particularly in the history of the NormanFrench element. This led him to a rather extensive study of the dialects of French, and the history of the French language generally. A paper of great value by him on these subjects, entitled 'The Norman Element in the Spoken and Written English of the 12th, 13th, and 14th Centuries, and in our Provincial Dialects,' appears in the Transactions of the Philological Society, 1868-9, of which he was a distinguished and an active member.

As in the beginning of his career Mr. Payne was not deterred from his special vocation by the labour to which he was compelled, or by the privations from which he was not altogether free, so towards its close the same vocation was fulfilled with dignity, and with so much tenacity as could co-exist with the suffering or other disability he was called upon to endure. The death of his wife, which

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Having regard to the assiduous and exacting labour demanded of Mr. Payne during so large a portion of his life, it may be said, on the whole, to have been one of not inconsiderable literary productiveness. His works comprise, besides the exposition of Jacotot's system already mentioned, Epitome Historia Sacra: a Latin Reading-book on Jacotot's System, 1830; Select Poetry for Children, 1839 (eighteenth edition, 1874); Studies in English Poetry, 1845 (eighth edition, 1881); Studies in English Prose, 1868 (second edition, 1881); The Curriculum of Modern Education, 1866; Three Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, delivered at the College of Preceptors in 1871; 'Theories of Teaching, with their corresponding Practice,' and 'On the Importance and Necessity of Improving our Ordinary Methods of School Instruction,' in the Proceedings of the Social Science Association, respectively for 1868-69 and 1871-72; The Importance of the Training of the Teacher, 1873; The True Foundation of Science Teaching, 1873; The Science and Art of Education: an Introductory Lecture, 1874, and Pestalozzi, 1875, both of them being lectures delivered at the College of Preceptors; Fröbel and the Kindergarten System, 1874 (third edition, 1876); and articles in the British Quarterly Review, respectively on 'Eton,' 1867, 'Education in the United States,' 1868, and The Higher Education of the United States,' 1870. A Visit to German Schools in the Autumn of 1874 was published after the author's death in 1876; and a first volume of his Works was published, first and second edition, 1883, with the title of Lectures on the Science and Art of Education, with other Lectures and Essays. By the late Joseph Payne, the First Professor of the Science and Art of Education in the College of Preceptors, London. Edited by his son, Joseph Frank Payne, M.D., Fellow of

Pedagogue. See ROMAN EDUCation. Pedagogy. This word has hardly taken root in our language. It has existed there at least since the time of Anthony Wood in the seventeenth century. And yet even now it is looked upon as something of an intruding foreigner. The contemptuous use of pedagogue' has perhaps been unfavourable to its acceptance; perhaps too the word meets with grudging recognition because the thing expressed by it is not held in much honour among us English. What then is the thing expressed? Let us say that it is a study whose end is to ascertain how the faculties of the young develop, and the best methods of harmonising educational arrangements with their development. Thus its interest is twofold, speculative and practical. This interest, however, is but little realised among us here in England, just because the two functions, the speculative and the practical, have been divorced from each other. The writers, such as Milton, Locke, and Herbert Spencer, have been too absolutely hostile to the existing order of things to gain a hearing from the teachers. The teachers have been too much of practical trainers, too little of thoughtful educators, to concern themselves with pedagogic theories. The books of celebrities, such as those just named, have been read because of the interest attaching to anything that proceeded from their pens, and not because of the educational stimulus that might be derived from their doctrines. But books on pedagogy, even when supported by names such as these, receive none too much attention, as may be learnt from the prefaces prefixed to Milton's and Locke's treatises in the Pitt Press editions. Herbert Spencer's work, it must be admitted, has been very widely read and discussed, yet in this case the separation between the educational theorist and the practical educator is only too forcibly illustrated. Spencer estimates the relative merits of the manifold subjects that claim a place in our educational course. And the suggestiveness of his estimate in

the abstract cannot be overrated. But one most important consideration is altogether left out of sight. Instruction is in the main carried on in schools; the most educative subjects under the class system that is inseparable from school life are those which best lend themselves to the catechetical (may we not dignify it by the name Socratic?) method. But Spencer, regarding the whole subject from a too purely philosophic and absolute point of view, has entirely omitted this factor from his account. The learner's aptitudes and his needs, and the intrinsic value of the subject, have been treated in a most masterly manner; but the conditions under which the learner is to study these subjects have hardly been regarded at all. Thus the defender of linguistic studies, as against those advocated by Spencer, has had left him by his mighty assailant one very strong fortress. He may plead that the question whether the instruction is to be imparted to learners individually, or to learners gathered together in large classes, is preliminary and fundamental. Readers of Milton and Locke will remember that the school system, whose claims, it is true, have very much increased in importance as the population has grown, is with them, too, either actually attacked or nearly disregarded. If, however, the educational theorist has been too little in touch with the practical educator, the latter has been far too little regardful of pedagogy-of the teaching of the educational thinker. The evidence for this statement is not far to seek. Books dealing with the theory and practice of education, books on pedagogy, by no means meet with as much public favour in this country as might be expected. One reason for this state of things is no doubt to be found in the fact that so many teachers in England have merely been drifted by force of circumstances into the occupation. Where men on the Continent choose teaching as a profession, we in England accept it as a convenient avocation that requires no preliminary outlay. Hence in France (to say nothing of Germany) a book like Compayré's Histoire Critique des Doctrines de l'Education passes through many editions, while similar books in England, if they find the light of day at all, certainly meet with nothing like general appreciation. The teachers elsewhere form a profession, and treat the subjects connected with that profession as a serious

study; the teachers here form a hetero geneous assemblage, with or without credentials for the work in which they are engaged, frequently so guiltless of all educational theories as to be ignorant that they are ignorant. No wonder, then, that pedagogy is with us at a discount. This is unquestionably a most grievous national loss. Opinion is knowledge in the making.' Without something like scientific discussion on educational subjects, without pedagogy, we shall never obtain a body of organised opinion on education. But true theory and sound practice are too nearly related ever to be separated with safety. Thus our practice ignores much of what has been laid down as fundamental by writers on education. The difference between the child and the youth, so strongly emphasised by writers like Rousseau and Pestalozzi, is ignored all through our educational system, from the public elementary schools to the great public schools (see Quick's concluding remarks on Rousseau's Emile). For want, again, of such organised opinion, it has been in vain that Matthew Arnold has year after year pleaded for systematising Middle Class Education, and correlating it with the public elementary school system. (See article on Schools in Humphry Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria.) How indeed can our institutions be conducted on broad and healthy principles as long as so little consideration is devoted to the doctrines and theories of which they are the practical embodiments} Pedagogy (Bibliography of). See Appendix.

Pedagogy (History of). See SCHOOLS oF ANTIQUITY; MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF); RENAISSANCE; REFORMATION; and the biographical articles.

Pedantry.-Pedantry is an ostentation of learning. It was a remark of Browne's, 'Tis a practice that savours much of pedantry, a reserve of puerility which we have not shaken off from school.' Swift was of opinion that pedantry is the overrating of any kind of knowledge we pretend to. For which reason Swift looked upon fiddlers, dancing masters, heralds, masters of ceremonies, &c., to be greater pedants than Lipsius or the elder Scaliger. According to Addison, a pedant is a man who has been brought up among books, and is able to talk of nothing else, and is a very indifferent companion; but he added that the title should be enlarged, for ‘in

short, a mere courtier, a mere soldier, a mere scholar, a mere anything, is an insipid pedantic character, and equally ridiculous.' Bishop Burnet (History of his own Times, bk. ii.) speaks likewise of the pedantry of which the preaching of the clergy of the orthodox school was overrun before the rise of that intellectual and genial body of men, the latitudinarian divines.

Penitence, Remorse. The state of mind indicated by these terms forms the characteristic pain of conscience or the self-judging moral faculty (see MORAL SENSE), just as the sense of well-doing or merit constitutes its proper pleasure. Remorse springs out of an inner act of self-reflection. It is the condemnation by the present self of the past self, and is thus a sign of, and indeed an important element in, moral progress. As might be expected from its conditions, remorse does not show itself in the first years of life. Hence the fact, which is apt to seem so baffling to the parent or teacher, that one cannot produce the state of mind by mere force of exhortation. Refusal to confess regret for a fault may arise from inability to fix the thoughts on the wrong action so as to see its true quality, from the persistence of the bad feeling which prompted it, or, lastly, from obstinacy. As repentance is thus a state of feeling which cannot be externally induced, it is well not to try to force it by mere talking, but rather to put the child in such circumstances as are likely to foster reflection. The manifestation of pain and disappointment by a parent or teacher whom the child really loves will often effect more in this direction than hours of admonition.

Penmanship. See WRITING.

Perception, Observation. By the act of perception is meant the work of the mind in unifying the impressions received through the senses into a knowledge of objects. Perception is the first stage in that intellectual elaboration of sense-materials which culminates in abstract thought. To perceive, i.e. distinguish and recognise objects, implies normal and trained senses. When sense-impressions are indistinct the knowledge of things will be inexact. But it implies more than this, viz. the interpretation of the impressions received at the moment by the aid of past experiences. Thus, a child that sees its ball as a real object is translating visual impressions

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| into imagined tactile experiences (feeling, lifting, rolling the ball). Hence perception is acquired. An infant does not see things as things, and cannot distinguish by the eye a flat drawing from a solid body. The ordinary circumstances and needs of life compel cvery child to connect and interpret its impressions up to a certain point. But such spontaneous acts of perception are apt to be rough and defective. The ends of exact knowledge require a more careful and systematic inspection of objects. This is marked off as Observation, and the branch of intellectual discipline that aims at securing it is known as the training of the Observing Faculty. To observe any common object, as a flint or a tree trunk, so as to note all its peculiarities of form, colour, &c., implies a strong, wide interest in objects. This the child has in a measure, and when the observing faculty has been drawn out from the first, the pleasure springing from the use of the organs of sense and from the gaining of new knowledge may be counted on as a sufficient motive. A habit of observation presupposes both presence and openness of mind; in other words, freedom from mental preoccupation and reverie, and a willingness to see things just as they are, and not as we fancy them or would like them to be. The highest kind of observation combines exactness or minuteness, comprehensiveness, and rapidity. The close connection between exact observation and scientific induction renders it important to exercise the observing faculty by object-lessons as a preparation for science-teaching. Observation forms, however, the necessary preliminary to all studies, e.g. geography, mathematics, language (cf. article SENSES). See H. Spencer, Principles of Psychology, vol. ii. pt. vi. chap. ix., &c.; Taine, on Intelligence, pt. ii. bk. ii. chap. ii.; Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. viii.; Thring, Theory and Practice of Teaching, pt. i. chap. vii.; Beneke, Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre, § 16, and following; Compayré, Cours de Péd., pt. i. leç. iv. ; and Buisson's Dictionnaire de Péd., art. 'Observation.'

Peripatetic (ETTαTηTIKós, from Teρinaréw, to walk about).-A follower of the method of Aristotle, who taught and discussed with his pupils as he walked about amongst them in the halls and promenades of the Lyceum.

Perseverance. This is that quality of

will by which an end is steadfastly pursued to the disregard of all extraneous solicitations. It is closely connected with mental concentration on a subject of thought (see ATTENTION); and it may be said indeed to be a firm concentration of the mind on an object of desire. The moral value of this quality as one of the highest manifestations of will, and its great practical utility in life, render it incumbent on the moral educator to develop it to the utmost. It is, moreover, a moral quality which the discipline of school is peculiarly well fitted to foster and strengthen. The learner should be led to see how success in study depends on perseverance, and how often, as the fable of the hare and the tortoise tells us, patient and unremitting effort defeats mere superiority of natural talent. Persian Education, according to Herodotus (book i. 136), consisted in teaching youth to ride, to shoot, and speak the truth. (See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY.)

Pestalozzi, Johan Heinrich (17461827), the son of a doctor of Zurich, and born in that town, was (with the exception of Froebel) the greatest educational reformer since the days of the Revival of Learning. His single influence has done more to humanise and render wise and sound the public elementary education, not only of Switzerland, but of all Europe, than that of any other man who has ever lived. Not that his reforms have ever been in any sense fully carried out; but that by him men's minds have been drawn to and fastened on the need of education for the people, and have been considerably enlightened as to what that education should be. The modern enthusiasm for what is called technical education is moreover, in a large measure, due to his teaching; and as time goes on, his views, mingling with those of his great follower Froebel, are year by year more and more changing and moulding the education of the earlier years of childhood.

For a detailed account of his life we must refer our readers to the excellent Histoire de Pestalozzi, by Roger de Guimps. Here, after mentioning a few of the most marked events, we shall restrict ourselves to a statement of his principles and practice. Pestalozzi commences his agricultural experiment at Neuhof near Birr in 1768-which ends in utter failure in 1780. Marries Anna Schultess in 1769. Experiment in educating pauper children

at Neuhof, 1775-1780. Experiment in educating destitute children in the ruined Ursuline convent at Stanz during the first six months of 1799. Teaches in the schools of Burgdorf (Berthoud), July 1799 to June 1804. Goes to Munchenbuchsee, near Hofwyl, in June 1804, to work in conjunction with Fellenburg. Opens the Institute at Yverdun, at the southern end of Lake Neuchâtel, October 1804. The Institute is closed 1825. Returns to Neuhof, and dies there in February 1827. Pestalozzi's most valuable works are as follows: First volume (the best) of Leonard and Gertrude, 1781; Letter to Gesner describing the experiment at Stanz, 1799; How Gertrude teaches her Children, 1801; Book for Mothers, 1803; My Swan-Song, 1826; a complete (or almost complete) edition of Pestalozzi's works, in eighteen volumes, has been published by Seyffarth at Brandenburg, the last volume of which appeared in 1873. Taking as our guide the fifteen letters written to Gesner in 1801, and entitled How Gertrude teaches her Children, the following are Pestalozzi's leading principles: (1) Intuition, or knowledge attained directly through the senses, is the groundwork of all knowledge. (2) Language ought to be closely united with intuition, and taught in connection with objects by means of exercises in expressing what has been intuitively learnt. (3) The time of learning details is not the time for reasoning and criticising. (4) In every branch of education we should commence with the simplest elements, and thence continue step by step following the development of the child, i.e. by a psychologically connected series of lessons. (5) We ought to dwell long enough on each step for the child to obtain complete mastery of it, so that he can deal with it at his will. (6) Teaching should follow the path of development, not that of dogmatic instruction. (7) The individuality of the child should be sacred in the eyes of the teacher. (8) The principal end of elementary or primary instruction is not to make a child acquire information and accomplishments, but to develop and increase the powers of his intellect. (9) To knowledge must be added power; to acquaintance with facts, the ability to make use of them. (10) The relation between master and pupil, especially in matters of discipline, ought to be founded on and ruled by love. (11) Instruction ought to subserve the