The chief functions of the brain are: 1. To receive sensory impulses and interpret these. 2. To control the muscular movements of the body. 3. To serve as the organ of mind, i.e. of feeling, thought, and volition. The preceding view of the functions of the brain has important bearings on practical education. It must not be forgotten that education, using the word in the sense of brain-cultivation, is not confined to schools, but begins at the first moment of life, and continues throughout life without interruption except by sleep. During childhood the sensory and muscular parts of the brain are cultivated to an enormous extent, as also the powers of observation; but the reasoning powers remain to a large extent undeveloped. For the first seven years of life the natural order of evolution of the mental functions should be imitated, the muscular and sensory and observing powers being chiefly cultivated. Kindergarten work is very valuable in this connection. Deficient muscular and sensory cultivation is certain to make all subsequent mental efforts hazy and unpractical. Each sense requires special cultivation, and becomes skilled in proportion to the education it receives. The imperfect cultivation of any sense implies a defective condition of the corresponding part of the brain, and it is also true that the imperfect performance of any one mental function reacts injuriously on others. The blindness of the fishes living in the dark caves of Kentucky is an instance of atrophy of a disused organ. The same lesson is taught by the chickens which were put on a carpet immediately they were hatched, and never showed any tendency to scratch until sand was scattered on it. The lesson of disease also is, that if paralysis occurs in the young, the corresponding part of the brain wastes. Hence muscular and sensory exercise is important, not only because of its immediate utility, but because of its effect on the development of the brain and on the more purely mental functions. See also OVERPRESSURE and PHYSICAL EDUCATION. Breaking up is the term usually applied to the party or ceremony which takes place on the day previous to that on which a school closes for the term. Strictly speaking, however, 'breaking up' means the actual departure of the scholars. British and Foreign School Society (The) was the outcome of the labours of Joseph Lancaster, though he was in no sense its founder. He undertook so many responsibilities that in 1807 he found himself hopelessly in debt. His creditors were clamorous, and the life of every institution in which he was concerned was threatened, when William Corston and Joseph Fox came to his rescue. At Corston's house, No. 30 Ludgate Street, on January 23, 1808, these two resolved to form a society for the purpose of affording education to the children of the poor. They undertook to pay all Lancaster's debts and to take the whole management of his pecuniary affairs into their own hands. At the end of July Corston and Fox were joined by John Jackson, M.P., Joseph Foster, and William Allen. Allen and Fox were the real leaders of the movement in favour of unsectarian religious education. One of the first acts of the enlarged committee was to ask the public for a loan to be applied in relieving Lancaster's 'inconvenience,' 'fixing his (printing) establishment on a permanent footing,' and 'enabling him to diffuse the good effects of his system more widely'; it was to bear interest at five per cent., and to be repaid as the gains of the printing business allowed. 4,000l. was raised almost immediately. In nearly every case the interest was given as an annual subscription, and ultimately the loan converted into a gift. Allen, Fox, and their colleagues used every endeavour to establish schools. They sent Lancaster on lecturing expeditions throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland, and their efforts were rewarded during the first three years of the committee's existence by the opening of eighty-seven schools and the subscribing of nearly 17,000l. to local funds or to the central institution. In December 1810 the management was greatly enlarged. The Duke of Bedford and Lord Somerville were chosen presidents, Fox secretary, and Allen treasurer, while there was in addition a 'finance committee' of forty-seven members, including Lords Lansdowne, Moira, Carysfort, Brougham, Romilly, and Messrs. Whitbread, Fowell Buxton, Člarkson, James Mill, and Samuel Rogers. The association was called 'The Society for Promoting the Royal British or Lancasterian System for the Education of the Poor.' The first public meeting of the subscribers was held in May 1811. Next year the last trace of the originally private BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY character of the movement disappeared. | be used only in supplementing local effort Lancaster proposed that, on condition of for the erection of schoolhouses. In the his making over to the committee his in- first year the British and Foreign School terest in the Borough Road premises and Society forwarded memorials soliciting aid property, he should be exonerated from all towards the building of 211 schools, for his debts in connection therewith, and the which the districts interested had already proposition was accepted. The committee subscribed 29,3837. The schools helped then determined upon a reconstitution of had to be open to inspection, and in 1838 the association, and at a meeting held in the Lords of the Treasury offered the Kensington Palace in August 1813, under British and Foreign School Society 500i. the presidency of the Duke of Kent, the to inspect the schools which, on its recomlines for the new organisation were agreed mendation, had obtained assistance. The upon. The subscribers met on November committee replied that no inquiry could 10, and adopted the new constitution. The prove satisfactory which was not carried fourth rule laid down the principle to on by parties unconnected with the sociewhich the society has always adhered ties whose schools they were to visit and 'All schools which shall be supplied with report upon.' In 1839 Government inteachers at the expense of this institution spectors were appointed, the British and shall be open to the children of parents Foreign School Society being allowed a of all religious denominations. No veto upon the choice of those to be encatechisms or peculiar tenets shall be trusted with the work of examining British taught in the schools.' The king was schools. In 1842 the college in the Borough named the patron of the society, the Duke Road was rebuilt at a cost of 20,000l. of Bedford president, while the vice- Towards this sum the Committee of Counpresidents included ten peers and seven cil contributed 5,000l., and it also contriMembers of Parliament among them, in buted 750l. a year towards the expenses addition to several mentioned before, Lords of the training institution. These grants Byron, Darnley, and Fingall, and Messrs. accentuated a difference of opinion which Grattan and Wilberforce. The duties to had been slowly growing up among the which the society addressed itself were: members of the society. A section, small 1. To stimulate and direct local effort to- in point of numbers, but weighty from wards the establishment and maintenance character and position, thought the British of schools; 2. To train teachers ; 3. To esta- schools which accepted State aid must blish kindred societies in foreign countries. finally become either sectarian or secular. After 1830 a fourth duty was recognised, A meeting of the subscribers was held that of promoting the efficiency of schools on June 1, 1847, to discuss the question. by friendly and skilled inspection. The The Rev. John Burnet moved a resolution success obtained at home and abroad was to the effect that the true policy of the most encouraging. Schools were opened society would be to abstain from any dethroughout England and Wales, while claration of sentiment on the subject' of flourishing societies were established in Government grants, and at the same time Scotland and Ireland, in nearly every Euro- to decline accepting such grants. pean capital, and in India, Australia, and Lushington, M.P., moved an amendment America. The building in Belvedere Place, to the effect that it would be best for the Borough Road, erected by Lancaster in interests of the institution to confide to the 1804, was soon found to be too small. A discretion of the committee the acceptance site on the other side of the road was there- or rejection of any further State aid. This fore leased from the Corporation of Lon- was carried by a large majority, and the don, and the college and schools built leaders of the minority thereupon severed thereon were opened in 1817. The year their connection with the society. The 1833 marks an epoch in the history of chief of the seceders was the late Mr. elementary education, for it was in that Samuel Morley, but when events proved year that the first Government grants (q.v.) his fears to be groundless he rejoined the were paid. The sum voted by Parliament society, and was for years one of its most was 20,000l. Every application for a share honoured vice-presidents. On the issue of of it had to be recommended by the British the Revised Code in 1861, the committee, and Foreign School Society, or the Na- after considering Mr. Lowe's proposals, tional Society (q.v.), and the money was to recognised 'the soundness of the principle Dr. of a test of the state of elementary instruction in a school as one basis of the pecuniary aid rendered,' but condemned the making of this the only basis.' The committee also protested against classification by age, and against the changes affecting teachers. The year 1870 saw the principle which the society had always consistently maintained adopted as the foundation of a national system of education. Mr. Forster's measure, by making it compulsory on each locality to provide sufficient school accommodation, relieved the society of one part of its work-the establishment of schools-but enormously increased another part, the provision of trained teachers. Increased efforts were at once put forth to meet the increased demand, and two new colleges were opened as soon as possible. The society has now six training colleges: Borough Road and Bangor for masters; Stockwell, Swansea, Darlington, and Saffron Walden for mistresses. Bangor is under local management, and Saffron Walden prepares students specially for infants' schools. If any School Board adopts the system of the British and Foreign School Society there is no reason for maintaining a British school in the district, and inany British schools have been transferred to School Boards. Brougham, Henry Peter, Peter, Baron Brougham and Vaux (1778-1868). Of Brougham's life and character, of his triumphs at the bar and in the senate, of his energy, versatility, and (superficial) omniscience, of his imaginative treatment of facts, of his vanity, recklessness, and eccentricity, this is not the place to speak; here we are only to deal with him as a promoter of popular education. Brougham's voice was not quite the first to be raised in Parliament in favour of the instruction of the poor, but it was one of the first, and for some years it was the most powerful. In 1807, when Whit bread introduced a Bill for the establishment of parochial schools, Brougham was not a member of the House of Commons, which he only entered in 1810. It was, however, well known that he was deeply interested in education, and his aid was eagerly sought by the promoters of it. Thus, when the committee of the British and Foreign School Society (q.v.) was enlarged in 1810, it was felt that he had earned a place upon it. At the general election of 1812 Brougham failed to obtain a seat in Parliament, and his exclusion lasted for nearly four years. He was returned again in 1816, and on May 21 he moved for a select committee to inquire into the state of education among the poor of the metropolis. His conciliatory manner disarmed hostility, and the committee was granted without opposition. Brougham was chosen chairman, and under his zealous guidance a vast amount of valuable information was collected. Interpreting its instructions loosely, the committee inquired not only into the means of education for the poor, but also into the management of such schools as the Charterhouse, Westminster, and Christ's Hospital. In 1817 the committee was re-appointed, but Brougham's illness kept it from doing anything. In 1818 it was again appointed, with powers which took in the whole country. Brougham inquired concerning the endowments of Oxford, Cambridge, Eton, and Winchester; some scandalous revelations were made, and the interests of education were forgotten in a fierce controversy about the policy and conduct of the committee. On June 23, 1819, when Brougham was barely recovered from a serious illness, Peel attacked him fiercely in the House of Commons, and he replied in a speech which he deemed worthy of a place among his published works. It may be added that as a consequence of the labours of the committee a law was passed for the appointment of charity commissioners to correct abuses in the administration of educational trusts. The Bill received the royal sanction on June 10, 1818. It was very unfortunate that Brougham had allowed his zeal to outrun his discretion, for there had been a general disposition in the House of Commons to do something for the education of the poor, as proved in 1807 by the passing of Whitbread's Bill, and in 1816 by the absence of all opposition to the committee of inquiry. Now the education of the poor came to be regarded by the timid as synonymous with the subversion of the most cherished institutions. In 1820 Brougham tried, when too late, to conciliate the Church, which he had deeply offended. In June he brought in a Bill to provide schools for the whole country. A local rate was to be raised, and the administration of it was to be in the hands of the magistrates BUCHANAN, JAMES-BURSARY 49 in Quarter Sessions. The schoolmaster | in his house; he was the first president, was to be a member of the Church of and he delivered the inaugural address on England; he was to be elected on the October 12, 1857. recommendation of a clergyman, and he was to qualify for office by taking the sacrament within a month of appointment. The attempt at conciliation came too late; the heads of the Church refused to accept from Brougham proposals which they might have welcomed from another-timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. On the other hand the Dissenters opposed strenuously a plan which would make the education of the people a monopoly of the establishment and the Bill had to be abandoned. The next educational work in which we find Brougham engaged was in connection with mechanics' institutes, in the establishment of which he proved a valuable ally to Dr. Birkbeck (q.v.). In 1825 Brougham issued his Observations on the Education of the People, which ran through twenty editions before the end of the year. He proposed a scheme for the publication of cheap and instructive books, and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge was formed in accordance with his views. The first pamphlet (which was written by Brougham himself) appeared on March 1, 1827. Another result of the 'Observations' was the establishment in 1828 of the London University-not, indeed, in its present form. In 1833 Brougham (a peer since 1830) took part in the debates which arose from the proposal of the Government to give building grants (see GRANTS), and on May 21, 1835, he moved a series of important resolutions on the subject of education. He proposed that there was a deficiency of school accommodation, that the instruction given in the schools which did exist was insufficient, that infant schools should be fostered, that Parliament ought to give grants in aid, that training colleges for teachers ought to be established, and that a Board of Commissioners ought to be appointed to superintend the education of the country and to apply to it the misappropriated endowments. Nothing practical came of the resolutions. Brougham out-lived his influence, but not his interest in all that concerned the welfare of the people. So late as 1857 we find him a warm supporter of the Social Science Association. The first formal meeting of the committee was held Though Brougham made many eloquent speeches, only one phrase of his has become historic, and that had to do with education. Speaking on January 29, 1828, he said :- Let the soldier be abroad if he will, he can do nothing in this age; there is another personage, a personage less imposing in the eyes of some, perhaps insignificant-the schoolmaster is abroad, and I trust him armed with his primer against the soldier in full military array.' Buchanan, James. See YOUNG CHILDREN, EDUCation of. Budæus. See REFORMATION. Bursar.-1. In English, the bursar of a college or monastery is the purse-keeper or treasurer (French bourse, a purse; from Low Latin bursa, a purse, skin, leather). 2. In Scotland, a person who holds, or is entitled to receive, a bursary (q.v.). Bursary.-1. The treasury of a college or monastery. 2. In the Scottish universities a bursary is a scholarship-a sum of money awarded usually on entrance, and payable annually for a certain number of years, to a student for his maintenance at the university, derived from a permanent investment for the purpose, and sometimes awarded by competitive examination, sometimes bestowed by presentation. At Aberdeen University there are, in the Faculty of Arts, (1) about 150 bursaries, of the aggregate annual value of about 2,500l., open to competition on entrance to the Arts course: seven are of 357., fifteen of 301., and so on downwards; (2) about eighty presentation bursaries (the bestowal of which is vested in private patrons), of the aggregate annual value of nearly 1,6007.: eight are of 407., two of 331., three of 307., and so on down to 5l. a year; (3) about thirty bursaries, under the patronage of the magistrates and town council of Aberdeen, of the aggregate annual value of over 4007.: these are usually submitted to open competition; (4) four bursaries, of 157. to 30l. a year, under the patronage of the incorporated trades of Aberdeen. These Arts bursaries are tenable in nearly every case for four years—that is, for the full curriculum. In the Faculty of Divinity, there are (1) eighteen competition bursaries, of the annual aggregate value of 2331., each tenable for three years; and (2) twenty-three presentation bursa ries, of the aggregate annual value of over 6007., each tenable for two, three, or four years four of these are of the yearly value of 751. and tenable for four years, and seven are of 207. In the Faculty of Medicine there are ten bursaries, of the aggregate annual value of about 175l.: there is one of 35l., one of 281., and three of 201. In the Faculty of Law there are three bursaries of 201. a year, and one of 351., each tenable two years.-At Edinburgh University there are in the Faculty of Arts about 180 bursaries (including two of 90l. a year, one of 60., two of 50%., two of 481., two of 40%., &c.), usually tenable four years, and mostly burdened with special restrictions. In the Faculty of Divinity there are (1) eleven presentation bursaries, varying from 8. to 251.; (2) twenty-two competition bursaries, including two of 527. 10s., one of 40%., one of 351., &c.; and (3) three of 301., tenable for four years, gained in the Faculty of Arts, and held at pleasure of the gainers in the Faculty of Divinity. In the Faculty of Medicine, twenty-five bursaries, tenable mostly for four years; including two of 401., one of 32l., five of 30%., four of 25l., &c. In the Faculty of Law, thirteen bursaries of 197. to 30%.; five being of 301., three of 267. 13s. 4d., and four of 251.At Glasgow University there are about seventy bursaries in Arts, including one of 80%., one of 50l, several of 40%., &c.; thirty-five in Theology, two of them being of 427., and six of 417.; fifteen in Medicine, one of them 457., one 40l., and several 251.; and a considerable number of valuable bursaries common to two or more faculties. At St. Andrews University there are attached to the United College about one hundred bursaries, varying in value from about 51. to 50l. a year; nineteen belonging to St. Mary's College, of 61. to 30l. a year; and twenty of the same value transferable from the United College when the bursars proceed to the study of Divinity. Busby, Richard (b. Lutton, in the Fens of Lincolnshire, 1606, d. 1695).-He obtained a king's scholarship at Westminster, and was subsequently elected to a studentship at Christ Church, Oxford. He was so poor that the parish of St. Margaret's, Westminster, granted him money to pay the fees upon taking his degree in 1628, and he gratefully acknowledged this by making many bequests to the parish. For some time he was tutor at Christ Church. In 1639 he was admitted to the prebend and rectory of Cudworth. He was appointed master of Westminster provisionally when Osbolston was deprived of that office (1638), but the election was not confirmed till 1640. In the Civil War he lost the profits of his rectory and prebend, but in spite of his staunch loyalty and Churchmanship, which led Pym to declare that it would never be right with the nation till they shut up Westminster School, he managed to retain both his studentship and his mastership. One of his troubles during this period was of a local character. The second master, Edward Bagshaw the younger, tried to supplant him, but he was removed out of 'his place for his insolence' in May 1658. Bagshaw published (1659) an account of the transaction from his own point of view. Busby subsequently suffered for his political principles by having his ears cropped in the presence of his pupils. Upon the Restoration Busby's services were recognised, and he was made prebendary of Westminster by the king, and subsequently canon residentiary at Wells. At the coronation of Charles II. Busby carried the ampulla. It was from this time that the story arose which tells us that Busby walked in the presence of the king with his hat on, 'lest the boys should suppose there was any man in the world greater than the master.' He was elected proctor of the chapter of Bath and Wells. Busby became proverbial for severity, and yet his rule seems to have been eminently successful, for he gained the veneration and love of his pupils. A remarkable proof of this may be seen in a letter from Viscount Lanesborough, which is preserved in Westminster School, Past and Present, by Forshall (p. 183). The letter begins, Dearest Master,' and contains references to the remarkable care of the master. The volume contains other letters also that are scarcely less striking. John Dryden and other distinguished men of his era had been his pupils. The school became famous, and the highest families in the land sought to gain admission for their sons. Steele was of opinion that Busby's genius for education had as great an effect upon the age he lived in as that of any ancient philosopher. . . . I have known great numbers of his scholars, and I am confident I could discover a stranger who had been such with a very little conversation; those of great parts |