who have passed through his instruction Anthony Wood speaks of him as a perhave such a peculiar readiness of fancy son eminent and exemplary for piety and and delicacy of taste as is seldom found justice.' Much of his character is shown in men educated elsewhere, though of equal in Dr. Basire's Correspondence. He lies talent.' Atterbury says of Busby, 'he is buried in Westminster Abbey. man to be reverenced very highly.' Buss (Miss) See EDUCATION OF GIRLS. a C he cannot turn if the heels are square; he must either draw back the foot or advance it the required distance; nor should he be allowed to walk round, but should raise the toes, and turn on the heels. Another useful exercise in expanding the chest and strengthening the arms is the arm exercise, which is done in six different grades, after the manner of dumb-bell exercises. The dumb bell is a short bar of iron, with a knob at each end, to be held in the hand and swung to and fro for exercise. No pupil under eighteen should use dumbbells above three pounds weight each. Other calisthenic exercises are leaning, lunging, and club exercises (see CURVATURE OF THE SPINE). A very handy book on this subject is Mr. T. A. McCarthy's Calisthenics (London, 1881). Cambridge. See UNIVERSITIES. Calisthenics (Gr. xaλoevýs, adorned with strength kaλós, beautiful, and ofévos, strength) is the art or practice of taking exercise for health, strength, or grace of movement. It comprehends every kind of action which may tend to give a graceful figure and an easy deportment, from the finest exercises of the drill-instructor to the 'calisthenic exercises of the unfortunate young women' whom Thackeray one day saw pulling the garden roller. It is usually, however, restricted to what is popularly known as drill and kindred exercises, and as such is commonly taught in our schools by some retired corporal. In taking up the first position of drill, in which position the pupil stands before or after being drilled, it is necessary that he should stand with his shoulders and body square to the front, heels in a line and closed, knees braced up, toes turned out at an angle of 45 degrees, and arms hanging loosely by the side, and straight like a veritable Corporal Trim. There should be no positive change in the upper parts of the body, although the lower limbs can be relaxed when not standing in the ranks. The pupil should always keep his chest advanced and his shoulders pressed back, for if he resumes his original position no object whatever is gained. In the interval between the exercises the pupil may stand at ease by putting the palm of the right hand over the back of the left, and by drawing back the right foot and placing the hollow against the left heel, slightly bending at the same time the left knee. Marching is a very useful exercise, as by it the pupil learns to walk steadily and in regular time; in the slow march the pupil is allowed 65 paces a minute, and in the quick march 116 paces a minute, each pace measuring about 30 inches. The arms should be kept steady, and the first position maintained. In turning, the pupil places the feet in Canada (Education in). See LAW order to turn in the direction indicated; | (EDUCATIONAL) and UNIVERSITIES. Campe, J. H. (b. 1746 in the duchy of Brunswick, d. 1818).—A celebrated German writer and pedagogue. After studying theology at Halle, and serving for awhile as chaplain to a regiment at Potsdam, he was in 1777 summoned by the Prince of Dessau to replace Basedow (q.v.) in the directorate of the Philanthropinum, which he raised to a high degree of prosperity. He also founded an educational establishment at Trittow, near Hamburg. He was in addition entrusted with the task of reforming the system of education in the duchy of Brunswick. He devoted the latte part of his life to educational literature, in which he was both a successful and a brilliant writer. His works include his Robinson Crusoe Junior, 106th edition, 1883, &c., German Dictionary, 5 vols., 1807-1812, Théophron, Collection of celebrated Voyages for the Young, 12 vols., General Revision of the School System, 1785-91, 16 vols. In his educational principles Campe followed closely those of Basedow. Catechumen (Gr. кaтηxoúμevos).—One who attends a class for instruction, where the teacher imparts his knowledge orally. It had a special meaning as applied to the converts to Christianity who were being prepared for the rite of baptism. Cathedral Schools. See ABBEY Cato the Censor. See ROMAN EDUCATION. Carpenter, Mary (b. Exeter, 1807, d. 1877), was the eldest child of Dr. Lant Carpenter, and sister of Dr. W. B. Carpenter. She was educated with her father's elder pupils. Her work in Sunday school early excited her interest in the poor. From 1829 to 1845 she was occupied with her mother and sisters in a school. After a struggle of some years, in 1854 Parliament SCHOOLS. passed a bill providing for the establishment of reformatory schools. Meanwhile Miss Carpenter had started one at Kings- Certificated Teachers. - After the wood. She was one of the chief promoters establishment of the Committee of Counof the Industrial Schools Act, passed in cil in 1839, their attention was for years 1857. In 1864 she advocated in Our directed to the creation of a body of well Convicts the application of the reformatory educated and skilful instructors. The system to adult criminals. In her sixtieth famous minutes of 1846 (see GOVERNMENT year she visited India to inquire into GRANTS) called into being two orders of Indian education and prison discipline. teachers-pupil-teachers (q.v.) and certiShe wrote an account of this in 1867, ficated teachers. The original certificates under the title of Six Months in India. of merit (as they were called) were of three She made three voyages to India after- classes, known as the upper, middle, and wards, and laid the foundation of a system lower, and in each class there were three of female education for the country. In divisions. The grants which were made 1871 she established 'The National Indian to normal schools contemplated a three Association' (q.v.), and edited its journal. years' residence, and a student who went She died suddenly at Bristol, after a life through the full course would be rated at of unselfish devotion to all that is best the close of the first year in one of the in education. A good sketch of her divisions of the lower class, at the close of work was published in the Times, June the second year in one of the divisions of 18, 1877. the middle class, and at the close of the third year in one of the divisions of the upper class. A large number of teachers actually at work when the minutes were first issued naturally desired to obtain certificates, and provision was made for them to be examined. The syllabus was elastic, and the class of certificate granted depended upon the difficulty of the subjects taken and the proficiency shown. To certificated teachers the Committee of Council paid a yearly 'augmentation' of salary, ranging, according to class and division, from 157. to 301. for masters, and from 10l. to 207. for mistresses. The Revised Code of 1862 swept away this augmentation together with the whole scheme of certificates. Henceforth there were to be four classes-the first three undivided, the fourth divided into an upper and a lower grade. In the lover grade were placed those who passed in the fourth division at the examination; in the upper all who passed in the first, second, or third division. No certificate was issued above the fourth class. Promotion to each of the higher classes successively was ob tained by five years' good service. The Casaubon. See REFORMATION. Castiglione (Count Baldassare). See RENAISSANCE. Catechetical Method. Instruction by question and answer, the pupils being required to answer the questions of the teacher. By this means the explanations requisite for the complete comprehension of a subject are discovered and given. Sometimes the answers are committed tc memory from the text-book, and are recited to set questions. Several objections are advanced against this method, the principal being (1) that the pupil, being required only to repeat what is enunciated in the language of others, loses the exercise of his own peculiar faculties; (2) the logical relations of the facts are liable to be overlooked or imperfectly apprehended; (3) that the answer to a question being merely learned, the full idea of the truth, of which sometimes the essential part is contained in a question, fails to be grasped. The catechetical was the method adopted by the early Christians to teach their converts, and especially before the New Testament was written. CHALDEA-CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY New Code of 1871 again changed the scheme of certificates. They were in future to be of three classes, with no sub-grades. Candidates who passed in the fourth division at the examination received certificates of the third class; candidates who passed in the first, second, or third division received certificates of the second class. No certificate was issued above the second class, promotion to the first being only obtained by ten years' good service. The code was recast under the direction of Mr. Mundella in 1882, but the rules respecting certificates were little altered. The full course of preparation for a teacher extends over six years-in a sense, over eight years. First come four years of apprenticeship as a pupil-teacher, with a Government examination at the end of each. Then comes the examination for queen's scholarships. Candidates who pass this high enough on the list enter a training college, where they stay for two years, undergoing an examination at the end of each-the 'first year's' and 'second year's certificate examination' respectively. The names of the successful candidates are arranged, according to the degree of success, in three divisions. A student who has completed his training is to all intents and purposes a certificated teacher, but he does not actually receive his certificate (or 'parchment,' as it is familiarly called) till he has been under 'probation' for at least eighteen months. He must in one school obtain from the inspector two favourable reports with an interval of a year between them; if the first be not preceded by six months' service it cannot count, and a third must be obtained before the parchment is issued. Certificates are of three classes. Candidates who pass the second year's examination obtain certificates of the second class. At each inspection of the school the inspector enters upon the certificate a concise report on the teacher's work; when ten good reports have been obtained the certificate is raised to the first class, and no further reports are entered on it. Candidates who pass the first year's examination receive certificates of the third class, which can only be raised by passing the second year's examination. The holders of third-class certificates are not allowed to take charge of pupil-teachers. Much of the course described is optional. The only compulsory parts are the passing of the first year's examination and the serving of a period of 53 probation. To begin with, though as a fact most of the candidates for admission into training colleges have been pupil-teachers, the examination may be taken by open queen's scholars,' that is, by candidates who have not been pupil-teachers. The apprenticeship does undoubtedly serve to give teaching skill and the confidence which comes of skill, but it is a question whether the same result might not be more certainly obtained if the practical training came somewhat later. Then the certificate examination of both years is open to acting teachers,' that is, to candidates who have not been through college. It is easy to suggest improvements in the existing training college system, and it is true that some untrained teachers have been highly successful while some trained teachers have utterly failed; but there is no denying that, other things being equal, the trained teacher is superior to the untrained, and that till the standard for certificates is considerably raised the education given in elementary schools must too often be narrow and mechanical. At the date of the report of the Committee of Council for 1885-6 there were 40,340 certificated teachers at work. Of these 43.8 per cent. were untrained, while 5.6 per cent. had been trained for less than two years. There are no figures to show what papers were taken by the untrained teachers, but the published lists prove that a majority took the first year's; yet, by a gross anomaly that existed till the end of 1882, untrained candidates who passed in the third division on the first year's papers, and candidates who had been trained for two years and passed in the first division on the second year's papers, received the same class of certificate. (See TRAINING OF TEACHERS.) Chaldea. See SCHOOLS OF ANTIQUITY. Channing, William Ellery (b. at Newport, Rhode Island, 1780, d. Boston, 1842). -An eminent American Unitarian theologian, educationist, and writer; was educated at Harvard College, and obtained great distinction by his eloquence and his writings, especially his review of Milton's Treatise of Christian Doctrine, and review of Scott's Life of Napoleon. His chief educational works were, On Self Culture, and The Elevation of the Working Classes, Channing regarded education as the means for the perfection of the individual, and supported the efforts of Horace Mann in spreading education among all ranks of society. Not only did these ideas triumph in the United States, but also spread in various countries of Europe. Character (Gr. xapaκтýp, a mark) means, when applied to a human being, the peculiar group of mental and moral qualities by which he is distinguished as an individual from others. In this sense it is equivalent to Individuality (which see). Its natural basis is also marked off as idiosyncrasy. In a restricted and ethical sense character means a good or virtuous condition of the mind, and especially the emotional dispositions and the will. Moral character is the highest result of moral development, being the outcome of a persistent series of efforts in doing right. It corresponds with what Kant calls a good will. Character has its chief support in moral habit, which implies a fixity of purpose in certain definite directions, as the pursuit of truth and of justice. But it includes more than a sum of habits, viz. a conscious self-subjection to duty, and a readiness to take pains to reach the truest and highest conception of duty. This moral character, though conceived abstractedly as a common attainment for all, is in every case vitally connected with, and in a sense an outgrowth from, individual character. truth, if the highest duty is to make the moral best of ourselves, it is evident that individuality has its rightful claims within the limits of moral growth. The educator, as a former of character, has no doubt to insist on a certain uniformity of moral action and of motive. Nevertheless, his ultimate aim should be to harmonise the claims of the moral law and of individuality, by helping the child to develop to the utmost its own distinctive good qualities. (See Mrs. Bryant, Educational Ends, introd. and pt. i. ; A. Martin, L'éducation du caractère ; Buisson's Dictionnaire de Péd., article 'Caractère'; Schmidt's Encyclopädie, article 'Charakter.') In Charity Schools.-Schools endowed for the purpose of giving an elementary education to the children of the poor. A large number of such schools were founded in the reign of Queen Anne, and are to be distinguished from the endowed grammar schools (q.v.) founded about the time of the Reformation. The grammar schools appear to have been designed generally for the purpose of affording means of higher education to all who might be willing to learn. For this object it was provided that the poor should be exempted from all payment, or, lest the poor should still be neglected, that no fees should be paid by any. The character of the teaching has, however, usually been of a kind not suited to the wants of the working classes. Cha rity schools, on the other hand, were intended mainly for the use of that class of the population which now attends public elementary schools, and for the purpose of affording them that sort of education which is now provided for all by compulsory laws. The Select Committee on the Endowed Schools Act, appointed in 1886, recommend that when a new scheme is made for an endowed elementary school, it should aim to provide the children of the working classes with a practical instruction suitable to their wants in the particular circumstances of each locality. The purpose of such a revision, in the opinion of the committee, should not be the relief of the school rate, but the endowment should be used as a means of providing some educational benefits which the poor would not enjoy if the endowment did not exist; as, for instance, in rural districts, industrial agricultural instruction suitable to the labouring population. Charlemagne. See MIDDLE AGES (SCHOOLS OF). Charterhouse. See PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Cheerfulness. This term describes a more or less permanent condition or attitude of mind, which is at once calmly pleasurable and promotive of activity, mental and bodily. It contrasts, on the one hand, with all unhappy states of mind, as fretfulness, despondency, and what is known as low spirits; and, on the other hand, with all states of pleasurable excitement, as boisterous mirth. It may be regarded as the product of three factors: 1. Of these the first is the influence of the whole bodily condition, corresponding to what physiologists and psychologists are in the habit of describing as the vital sense, or the feeling of well-being, and its opposite. The profound influence of varying bodily conditions, particularly those of the vital organs, in raising or depressing the mental tone, is strikingly illustrated in mental disease, and is clearly observable in children, whose whole mental life is so intimately connected with bodily states. CHEMISTRY What we mean by a happy natural disposition or cheerful temperament probably has for its chief ingredient a well-organised and healthy physique. 2. The second main influence is that of the surroundings, physical and moral. A happy, cheerful condition of mind in early life presupposes a sufficiency of interesting objects and channels of activity. A bright, pretty environment, whether out of doors or in doors, exercises a marked influence on the child's spirits. Agreeable openings for activity, and the presence of bright companions and playmates, are a further condition of this desirable mental state. The working of unconscious imitation is strikingly exemplified in the infectious character of cheerfulness. 3. In its highest form as a permanent habit cheerfulness represents the result of a series of voluntary efforts. By trying to rise above anything in our circumstances which is painful and depressing, and forming a habit of looking by preference on the bright side of things, we are all of us able to some extent to make good a deficiency in natural disposition. The educator is concerned with the promotion of cheerfulness in the young, in the interests both of intellectual and moral training. Since a gentle flow of pleasurable feeling is most favour able to mental activity (see PLEASURE), the school-teacher should make it one of his main objects, by the choice of attractive surroundings, an agreeable manner, &c., to maintain a cheerful tone among his pupils; and it is not one of the least merits of the Kindergarten (q.v.) that it so amply fulfils these conditions. Further, the moral educator should early begin to exercise the child in such a control of the feelings and the thoughts as will best conduce to a habit of cheerfulness, cf. article SYMPATHY. (See Fitch, Lectures on Teaching, p. 16, and articles Frohsinn,' Aufmunterung,' in K. A. Schmidt's Encyclopädie.) Chemistry. The science of Chemistry seems to have been first pursued in Egypt, whence it takes its name. According to Plutarch Egypt was anciently named Chemia, on account of the blackness of its soil. The same word,' say Roscoe and Schorlemmer, was used to designate the black of the eye, as the symbol of the dark and mysterious. It is therefore pretty certain that 'chemistry' originally meant Egyptian-or secret-knowledge, as it was afterwards termed the secret or black art 6 55 (Treatise on Chemistry, vol. i. p. 4). Like other sciences, chemistry took its rise in fanciful and superstitious ideas: as astronomy had its rise in astrology, so chemistry grew out of alchemy; and the ancestors of the Daltons, Boyles, and Joules of modern chemistry were the searchers for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. Of all the sciences that of chemistry demanded most of cour age from its votaries, and the experiences of inquiring chemists who, greatly daring, put together and treated unknown substances and awaited the results, form as exciting reading as the adventures of travellers in unknown lands. Thrice was Roger Bacon stretched on the floor of his cell for dead by unexpected explosions; many lost eyes and hands, and life itself, in the perilous experiments out of which has grown our modern knowledge of the constitution of material things. Chemistry is often described as a branch of molecular physics, i.e. of the science which deals with the relations that exist, not between bodies, but between the molecules, or particles, of which bodies are composed. It has for its domain the investigation of the ultimate constituents of all substances, living and non-living, of the laws of the combination and disassociation of these constituents. There is no science with wider bearings on human life; since the time of Paracelsus (14931541) it has been the foundation of medicine; on it scientific agriculture is based; manufacturing industries owe to it their great expansion; sanitary science is one of its latest births; by the synthesis of foodstuffs it is beginning to open up hitherto undreamed-of possibilities in the way of scientific alimentation. As an instrument in the education of the young it has been but too much neglected, for it cultivates keenness of observation, accuracy of recordal, strength of memory, and patience of investigation; in its theories it cultivates the reasoning faculties, while in its practice it trains the eye and the hand. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) may perhaps be regarded as the father of modern chemistry. He first laid down the distinction between elements and compounds, and discovered the relation existing between the pressure on a gas and its volume; the statement of the fact that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the pressure |