already known. In the narrower and scholastic sense it refers to the gaining of knowledge by the help of others' instruction. Hence the acquisition of knowledge is sometimes distinguished from the child's independent discovery of it. Learning is often spoken of as if it were a mere exertion of the faculty of memory. But wherever new knowledge is gained there is a preliminary process of comprehending or assimilating the new materials. Thus in grasping a new fact in geography or natural history, a child's mind must put forth activity in first analysing or resolving the complex whole into its parts or elements, and then synthetically recombining these, and viewing them in their proper relation one to another. Not only so, the new fact presented can only be grasped or realised by the mind by the aid of its points of affinity with what is already known. In other words, the mind has to assimilate the new to the old. In the case of learning new concrete facts by verbal description, this assimilative process assumes the form of constructing a new pictorial representation out of materials supplied by the reproductive faculty. (See IMAGINATION.) Where the new fact is not only imaginatively realised, but also understood, the process of assimilation includes the reference of it to some previously known class, and to some familiar principle or rule. It is thus evident that learning is never a purely passive process of reception, but always involves the activity of the child's own mind. There is no gaining of knowledge where there is not close attention and a serious effort to take apart and recombine the materials presented by the teacher. (See K. A. Schmid's Encyclopädie des gesammt. Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesen, article Lehren und Lernen.') Acroamatic Method (áкpoapaтikós, to be heard), a term applied to the oral method of instruction adopted by Aristotle. Activity. By the activity of a thing is meant the putting forth of its specific and characteristic force. In a wide sense nature as a whole is constantly active, and this activity is a special characteristic of living things. In the human being we have both a physical or bodily and a mental activity. Children, like young animals, exhibit a marked tendency to spontaneous muscular action, as may be seen in their play (see PLAY). This instinctive impulse to muscular exertion is an important condition of the growth of the bodily powers, and of the acquisition of the command of the organs of movement by the will (see WILL). Mental activity, as distinguished from bodily, is the conscious exercise of mental power. The most general name for this is Attention (which see). It is now generally admitted that all mental development is the result of the child's self-activity. A child learns just in proportion to the degree in which it actively exerts its intellectual faculties. This mental activity is in the earlier stages of development closely connected with bodily. It is by using the organs of sense in observation and by experimenting with the moving organs, more especially the hands, that the child's intelligence is called into play. Hence the educational significance of the child's spontaneous tendency to movement, a significance which Froebel was the first to fully see and utilise. The higher form of mental activity shows itself in the voluntary concentration of attention in eproducing former impressions, and in separating and recombining these so as to carry out the operations of imagination and thought. This so-called intellectual activity is immediately dependent on an exertion of will, and hence may be said to contain a moral ingredient. At the same time it is customary to distinguish from this intellectual a moral activity, which shows itself in an effort of will to do what is right. Such exertion is the proper means by which the will is strengthened and character formed (see CHARACTER). Thus we see that the child's physical, intellectual, and moral development alike depend on its self-activity. (See K. A. Schmid's Encyclopädie, article 'Thätigkeitstrieb.') Adam, Alexander, a celebrated Scottish teacher, born in Morayshire in 1741. In 1769 he succeeded to the rectorship of the High School of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself by introducing the study of classical geography and history, and by teaching his pupils the dead languages by aid of their native tongue, a method which he probably borrowed from the Port-Royalists (q. v.). Adam published the first Latin grammar written in English. Previous to him the whole of the text of grammars was written in 1 ADELAIDE UNIVERSITY Adult Education. The promoters of the various systems of adult education contend, in the first place, that the instruction received in the day school ought to be continued, or that much of the advantage will be lost; in the second place, that some provision should be made for adults to spend their leisure time in a manner at once enjoyable and profitable. The interests of commerce have led to the establishment of technical schools, the main object of which is to make the workman more intelligent and skilful. In this general activity higher education has not been forgotten, and adults of industry and ability have abundant opportunities at different colleges and schools of studying a university course. The most important institutions founded for the promotion of adult education are: 1. Mechanics' Institutes, initiated by Dr. Birkbeck (q. v.), who delivered a course of free lectures to artisans at Glasgow in 1800. The first institute was established in London in 1823, and since that time they have spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. The premises usually include a readingroom, circulating library, lecture-room, and class-rooms. Although originally intended to be self-supporting, the subscriptions of the members are generally supplemented by contributions. 2. Night Schools, in connection with the different elementary schools of the country, are found in nearly every town. They are taught by certificated teachers, and supported by the fees of pupils, and by grants upon examination by the Education Department. The subjects of instruction include the 'three Rs,' geography, grammar, French, &c., as specified by the Code. 3. Evening Classes. In London, at University College, King's College, the City of London College, Birkbeck Institutes, Polytechnic (Regent Street), South Kensington Museum, Finsbury Technical College, &c., evening classes are held. In the provincial colleges (q.v.) Dur evening classes constitute an important part of the curriculum. A great impetus was given to adult education by the re vival of the non-collegiate system at Oxford and Cambridge, and the establishment of London University, for the purpose of examining and conferring degrees. ham and Dublin also examine candidates without residence, and so stimulate private study. 4. Recreative Evening Classes. -The most recent scheme for promoting adult education has been the establishment of recreative evening classes. Among the founders are eminent educationists, and many representative working men. They allege that previous efforts have been unsatisfactory because the programmes have not been sufficiently entertaining. Their aim is to provide wholesome amusement and technical instruction for young men and boys who have left school. The distinguishing features are modelling in clay, wood-carving, calisthenic exercises with dumb bells or wands to a musical accompaniment, and instruction in instrumental as well as vocal music. Ægrotat. When a candidate for honours in any school at Oxford, or tripos at Cambridge, is prevented by illness from taking his examination or any part of it, the examiners may grant him what is called an ægrotat degree. (Lat. æger, sick.) Esthetic Culture. This concerns itself with the strengthening and developing of the aesthetic feelings and judgment, which together constitute what is known as taste This faculty includes the capability of recognising and enjoying all manifestations of the beautiful, both in nature and in art. It stands on the one side in close relation to the two higher senses, hearing and sight. The most rudimentary form of taste shows itself as a refined sensibility to the impressions of colour and tone. A fondness for bright colours and the combinations of these is observable, not only among young children and backward races, but even among some of the lower animals. In its fuller deve lopment taste involves the activity of the higher intellectual faculties, and more particularly the imagination (q.v.). This applies even to the appreciation of the sights and sounds of nature, which, as Alison has shown, owe much of their beauty and charm to suggestion. In the case of certain arts, as painting and, preeminently, literature, the exercise of the tellectual education becomes especially apparent in the study of literature, which is at once as a record of thought in words, an appeal to the logical faculty, and as a variety of art embodying worthy and noble ideas in a fitting harmonious form, a stimulus to the aesthetic feelings and the critical judgment. The connection between æsthetic culture and moral training is a question that has been much discussed both in ancient and in modern writings. (See Sully, Teacher's Handbook, chap. xviii., and the references there appended; also Schmid's Encyclopädie, article Aesthetische Bildung.') Affectation. This refers to the assumption of the external marks of a worthy feeling as the result of a voluntary effort, and not as the spontaneous manifestation of the feeling itself. It by no means necessarily involves a deliberate intention to deceive another, as hypocrisy always does, and commonly falls short of deception as an awkward and forced imitation of what should be genuine and easy' (Locke). It generally implies an intensified form of self-consciousness. As a form of insincerity, and having one of its chief roots in vanity, it calls for careful watching on the part of the educator. At the same time it must be remembered that it often arises half-consciously from the wish to please and the desire to be in sym imagination is the chief source of the asthetic delight. The education of taste aims at expanding and refining the asthetic feelings, and guiding the judgment by providing a fixed standard. It is thus at once a development of emotional sensibility and of intellectual power. In order to develop a child's taste it is necessary to awaken a genuine feeling for what is pretty, graceful, pathetic, sublime, &c. Hence the educator must be on his guard against the mere affectation (q.v.) of others' æsthetic sentiments and a mechanical reproduction of their maxims. This evil may be most effectually prevented by carefully attending to the way in which taste naturally develops, by not forcing a mature standard on the unformed childish mind, and by allowing, and even encouraging, a certain degree of individuality in taste. The education of taste includes first of all the exercise of the faculty in distinguishing and appreciating the beauties of our natural surroundings. This branch connects itself with the training of the observing faculties, and the fostering of a love of nature. Another branch concerns itself with the perception of what is graceful, noble, and so forth, in human action. And here the cultivation of taste becomes in a measure ancillary to moral education. Finally, it embraces special technical training in the fine arts, more particularly music, draw-pathy with others. According to Locke ing and painting, and literary composition. Here the object of the educator must be both to form the taste by the presentation of good models, and also to exercise the child in the necessary processes of interpretative rendering, as in singing and recitation, imitative reproduction, as in drawing, and original invention. The value of a wide æsthetic culture depends on the fact that it necessarily involves an harmonious development of the feelings as a whole, and so a preparation of the child for the most varied and refined enjoyments, and also a considerable growth of the intellectual faculties. Indeed, the æsthetic feelings form one important source of interest in most, if not all, branches of study. Thus the scientific observation of nature is sustained by a feeling for its picturesque and sublime aspects, and the pursuit of history is commonly inspired by an exceptional susceptibility to the dramatic side of human life. The connection between æsthetic and in affectation is not the product of untaught nature, but grows up in connection with management and instruction. It is thus a failing which a careless mode of education is exceedingly likely to encourage, as where a teacher looks for and even exacts the responsive manifestation of feelings which belong to a later stage of development, such as the more refined forms of æsthetic and moral feeling. (See Locke, Thoughts concerning Education, § 66, and Miss Edgeworth, Practical Education, chap. x.). Affection. This term, once used for all permanent and constant, as distinguished from transitory and variable, states of feeling, has come to be narrowed down to one specific variety of these, viz. a feeling of attachment to others. It includes two elements which it is important to distinguish a pleasurable feeling of tenderness showing itself in a liking for some particular person, and an element of sympathy or kindly sentiment. A true AGE IN EDUCATION affection is a gradual attainment involving fixed relations of a happy kind, an accumulation of memories, and a final process of reflection. Hence it has been said that grateful affection for a parent or a teacher is one of the latest of attainments. The fact that a feeling of affection prompts the subject of it to seek to please and further the happiness of the beloved object gives it a peculiar educational value. It is now commonly held that the most effectual way to influence a child is to attach it by bonds of affection. This work, which varies in difficulty according to the natural disposition of the child, is always much easier in the case of a parent than of a school teacher, for the latter, as the representative of a government which is wont to appear unnatural and excessive, is apt to arouse hostile feelings. These difficulties can only be got over by an habitual manifestation of kindness, consideration, and sympathy on the part of the teacher. See SYMPATHY. there is, however, much preparatory work to be done which will greatly facilitate future progress. The child must be brought under training and taught obedience by being induced to rely upon the teacher, and so to submit to his guidance. Advantage should be taken, too, of the great interest which is natural to children in the objects of everyday life, especially animals. Simple descriptions of the food we eat and of domestic animals afford infinite pleasure to the young, stimulate observation, furnish the mind with useful facts, and strengthen the memory. The power of imitation is strong at this age, and drawing or writing may be a source of both pleasure and profit. Reading and arithmetic are usually regarded as tasks, and only the very rudiments should be attempted. A remarkable transformation has taken place in the infants' schools of this country by the almost universal adoption of the Kindergarten method (q.v.) of teaching, founded by Froebel. Its general aim is to amuse the child in such a way as to exercise its faculties so that it may be educated without being conscious of pressure. gratifying results which are obtained by this system prove the excellence of the methods employed. The Age in Education. The connection between age and education has been the subject of much controversy, but, speaking of the period up to manhood, it has been generally agreed that there are three distinct stages in the development of the mind corresponding to three clearly marked periods in the development of the body. Childhood extends from the seventh to The three epochs extend each over seven the fourteenth year, or the attainment of years, and are strikingly distinguished by puberty, and coincides nearly with the physiological differences in the constitu- second dentition. Throughout this period tion, some of which are external and ob- the desire for more vigorous physical exervious. These periods are infancy, child-cise is manifested. The child begins to hood, and youth. Infancy, which covers the first seven years of life, is the time of active physical development and of rapid growth. Its close is indicated by the shedding of the temporary teeth and the appearance of the earliest permanent teeth. Even during the last two or three years of this stage a child is capable of little original effort, and there are few manifestations of mental activity beyond observation and memory. Instruction during this period should hold, therefore, only a secondary place, and the education should be rather that of the body than that of the mind. The voice of nature should rule, and it demands considerable freedom from restraint, exercise for the body, and for the intellect entertainment and amusement which are not too exciting. In the application of this principle feel his strength, and gives evidence of his power and tastes by independent thought and action, which point to a future career. Natural propensities are now quickly developed, impressions are received and character formed. The desires and aspirations should be carefully observed by the teacher so as to approve and encourage what is good, or to restrain and check the evil. Youth embraces the period from four teen to twenty one years of age, during which the development of the body is completed, and virility is attained. This is essentially the time of special prepara tion for the battle of life. Except in the case of the wealthy and those intending to adopt a profession, the opportunity of giving undivided energy to study has ended with boyhood. The faculties of the mind are now active and vigorous, the imagi nation is quickened, and a youth should enter upon the study of his favourite subject full of hope and zeal. To ensure sound progress and to prepare for responsibility which is near at hand, the teacher, while he still carefully guides, should provide less assistance and require greater independent exertion and original effort on the part of the pupil. forth. Other agents extend their connections to all branches. After due inquiry they place on their books the names of ladies and gentlemen who wish to find situations as assistants in schools, or as visiting tutors to private families, or as travelling tutors; who wish as principals to engage assistants, who wish to enter into partnership or to receive a partner, who Legislation in reference to age and wish to sell or to purchase a school. They education varies in different countries, also recommend to parents and guardians and even in different parts of the same satisfactory schools in which to place their country. In England, school boards and children, according to the individual reschool attendance committees may com quirements, both at home and abroad. pel attendance at school under the Ele- The commission charged is very reasonmentary Education Act from five to four-able at all respectable agencies-geneteen years of age. Between these limits the years of school attendance required by the bye-laws of different school boards and committees vary considerably. As a rule the period of attendance is shorter in agricultural districts than in towns, numbers of children in rural parishes being allowed to leave school at ten years of age, provided they have passed the fourth standard. The School Board for London compels attendance from five years of age until either (1) the sixth standard is passed; or (2) the child is thirteen years of age and has passed the fourth standard; or (3) the child is fourteen years of age. In the United States the legal school age is from five to fifteen; in France from seven to twelve; in Germany from six to fourteen. In Switzerland each canton legislates for itself. In Lucerne attendance at day school is compulsory from seven to fourteen years, followed by two years at an evening school. In Zurich the age is from six to twelve at day school, and three years at an evening school. 6 Agents Scholastic, Medical, and Clerical. There are numerous agencies in London and also in the provinces for bringing together parties whose educational wants are complementary. Some restrict themselves to one particular branch of educational business - for example, there are governess agencies,' which bring into communication governesses and persons that wish to engage governesses; 'medical agencies,' which limit themselves to the satisfaction of the needs of medical gentlemen that wish to find situations, and medical gentlemen that wish to be provided with assistants, partners, or new fields of work, and so rally 5 per cent. on engagements at home, and 10 per cent. on engagements abroad, and for partnerships and transfers 5 per cent. on the money (or money value) that passes. In spite of the abuse of their position by some agents, and the deliberate swindling of impostors describing themselves as agents, the system is undoubtedly of great assistance to both parties to each transaction, particularly when the agent has a good connection and is competent to judge of the qualifications and needs of the applicants. It is strange that so few agents seem to have had personal experience in teaching, or to be of such academical standing as to justify reliance on their judgment in the cases that come before them. The fact that one London agency is personally conducted by two graduates of high academical as well as educational standing is sufficiently noteworthy; it is especially creditable to the system, and affords exceptional assurance of intelligent guidance. Agricola, Rodolph, b. near Groningen, in Friesland, in 1443. His first master is said to have been Thomas à Kempis. He distinguished himself at school, and then proceeded to Louvain, where he graduated. He subsequently studied Greek under Theodore Gaza at Ferrara. Here he also lectured on the Roman language and literature. He returned to Holland, and was professor for a short time in Groningen. In 1482 he removed to Heidelberg, upon the invitation of the Bishop of Worms, and there he was appointed professor. He studied Hebrew with great success, and gave lectures on ancient history; but a sudden illness put an end to his career at the early age of forty-two. Agricola's classical attainments were of the highest |