centre of gravity, and is borne by the strong bony arch of the hips, the strongest part of the body.'

In addition, great use is always made by those who carry great weights of the system of balance. The packman of England used to carry from 40 to even 60 lb easily thirty miles a day by taking the top of the scapula for the fixed point, and having half the weight in front of the chest and half behind. In this way he still brought the weight over the centre of gravity. The same point, and an analogous system of balance, is used by the milkmaid, who can carry more weight for a greater distance than the strongest guardsman equipped with the old military accoutrements and pack.

These points must guide us in arranging the weights carried by the soldier. The weight on the head is, of course, out of the question. We have, then, the scapulæ, the hip, and the principle of balance, to take into consideration.

In our army the carriage of the kit and ammunition has always been felt to be a difficulty, and many have been the changes in the infantry knapsacks since the close of the Peninsular war. The method of carriage which was formerly in use, though better than some of the older plans, had grave defects, and it has now been superseded by the new equipment."

The new infantry equipment, proposed by a War Office Committee, appointed by Lord de Grey in 1864, and of which General Henry Eyre was the president, was devised for the purpose of enabling the infantry soldier to carry his weights with greater comfort (and, therefore, to enable him to march farther), and especially to do away with any chance of injuring his heart and lungs. This committee presented four reports to the War Office.'

Considerable difficulty was found in fixing on the best equipment; in addition to all the points already noted, simplicity and durability, and as much freedom from accidental breakage as could be insured, were essential; facility of removal and readjustment for emergencies, adaptation for various conditions of service, and suitableness for military exercises, had all to be considered. After passing in review all the known plans, and experimenting on a large scale, the committee at last recommended a plan which, after an extended trial in many regiments, and being submitted to the opinions of many officers, was finally authorized and issued in place of the old pattern.

1 The girls engaged in some of the works in Cornwall carry immense bags or hampers of sand up steep hills by resting the lower part of the sack on the hip and sacrum, and the upper part on the scapula. It is the same position as that taken by the Turkish porters, who will carry 600 and 800 lb some distance; they also sometimes have a band round the forehead fastened to the top of the weight.

2 In the former editions descriptions were given of the obsolete Regulation equipment, and of various other plans. But it has been thought unnecessary to repeat these.

In the chapter on HOME SERVICE are given the facts about the amount of heart and vessel disease in the army. It appears to be very large, and to be attributable, in part at any rate, to exercise under unfavorable conditions. It is not confined to the infantry, but is common to all branches, and perhaps the disease of the vessels is even greater in degree in the cavalry and artillery. Professor Maclean, C. B., called the attention of the authorities to this matter in a striking lecture delivered at the Royal United Service Institution, and published in the Journal of the Institution, vol. viii., and from which extracts were given in former editions. The army is greatly indebted to Dr. Maclean for his clear exposition on this point. The first Report of the Committee on Knapsacks contains the evidence to that date.

• Reports of the Committee appointed to Inquire into the Effect on Health of the present System of carrying the Accoutrements, Ammunition, and Kit of Infantry Soldiers: First Report, 1865; Second Report, 1867; Third and Fourth Reports, 1868.

The new equipment is essentially based on the yoke valise plan of the late Colonel Sir Thomas Troubridge, C.B., who had been for many years experimenting on this subject;' but it is greatly altered in details in order to avoid the use of copper or iron rods. The two great principles are to use the scapula and the sacrum in about equal proportion as carriers of the weight, and to place the weights as near to the body as possible, and, as far as could be done, in front as well as behind, so as to avoid the displacement of the centre of gravity. The great advantage of using the sacrum as one of the points of support has been very apparent in the trials of the valise plan. In that way only can the chest be thoroughly relieved; a very great weight can be carried without injury if it is necessary, and apart from that a mechanical advantage of no small moment has been obtained. For the effect of placing the kit and ammunition low down is to free the large muscles of the shoulder and back from the impediment which hinders their action when a knapsack of any kind is carried in its usual place; the bayonet exercise can therefore be much better performed; but more than this, the soldier engaged in a personal struggle is in far better position than with a knapsack on the upper part of the back; for in the latter case, the centre of gravity being displaced (raised and carried backwards), the man has already a tendency to fall back which tells seriously against him. In the new equipment, on the contrary, the great weights being all below the centre of gravity, rather tend to keep a man steadier and firmer on his legs than otherwise.

In order to gain these advantages, and also to lessen the weight of the equipment, the framed knapsack was abandoned, and a bag or valise substituted, which is large enough to carry the service kit and some provisions. The total weight of the whole equipment, as intended for active service, is 5 lb 8 oz.

In the peace equipment there is a single pouch in front, which can be shifted to one side so as to allow the waist-belt to be opened. The straps running up over the shoulder from the rings are made broad on the scapulæ, they cross on the back like a common pair of braces, and then catching the top of the valise on the other side by a buckle, run under the arm to the ring on the opposite side from which they started. From this ring a strap runs to the bottom of the valise which is placed resting on the sacrum; by this arrangement the weight of the valise is thrown partly on the shoulder, partly on the sacrum, and is also thrown forward in a line with the centre of gravity. From the ring another strap runs to the waistbelt and supports the ammunition, which thus balances in part the weight behind.

In full service order two pouches are carried in front, each holding 20 rounds; there is also a ball-bag, intended to hold loose cartridges for rapid firing, in which, if there be necessity, 20 or even 30 cartridges can be put. There is provision in the valise for twenty more.

The greatcoat is placed above the valise, and being soft, gives no obstruction to the action of the muscles of the shoulder.

The canteen can be carried over the greatcoat; but many officers prefer carrying it on the valise, where there are two loops intended for it.

This equipment is very easy, and leaves the chest perfectly free; it is simple both in principle and construction, and affords many facilities for carriage of articles, such as the haversack, the water-bottle, blanket, etc.,

1 Sir T. Troubridge's equipment will be found described and figured in the 2d edition of this work. He had made experiments on this subject for more than fifteen years.

which prove useful on service. It is of more importance to note here, that it certainly answers all medical requirements; and as it leaves the man very free and unencumbered in his movements, it does away entirely with the stiff unmilitary appearance produced by the old plan.

There seems only one sanitary point which has been urged against this equipment, and that is, that a good deal of the back is covered, and that perspiration collects under the valise. Whatever equipment be used, there must be retention of perspiration under the covered parts; this is inevitable, and is produced by any knapsack. The valise equipment is no exception to the rule, but it is singular how little perspiration really collects under the valise if the man knows how to manage it. By allowing the top of the valise to fall back half an inch, a space is left between the greater part of the valise and back, which allows evaporation, and the loins are kept cool. On the march also, when the waist-belt is unbuckled, both the valise and great-coat hang loosely and away from the body, and evaporation goes on.'

The principle of the valise equipment will probably always be maintained, although some details may be altered. The "magazine accoutrements," invented by Brigade-Surgeon W. S. Oliver, A.M.D., have been under trial some time, and have been very favorably reported upon. They appear to be even easier than the valise equipment, and are less complicated in their fittings; they provide for the carriage of more ammunition, and leave the back freer for transpiration. There is also a light waterproof cape, which can be used as a sheet or portion of a shelter tent.

SECTION VII.

WORK OF THE SOLDIER.

The kind and amount of work in the different arms of the service is so different that it is impossible to bring it under one general description. In the artillery, cleaning horses, guns, carriages, and accoutrements, and gun drill; in the cavalry, cleaning of horses, accoutrements, and drill with the special arm; in the infantry, drill, and barrack and fatigue duties, and the cleaning of arms and accoutrements, are all kinds of work, the amount of which is not easy to estimate,

Much of the work of the artillery and cavalry is highly beneficial to them, and the fine well-developed muscles show that all parts of the body are properly exercised. Some of the work (such as gun drill or sword exercise) is hard, and even violent, and the great amount of aneurism in both bodies of men, as well as in the infantry, has led to the idea that the exercise is either too severe, or is performed under unfavorable conditions, such as heavy equipments or too tight-fitting clothes. Although violent while it lasts, it seems questionable whether the work is so severe as that which many mechanics undergo without injury; it may, however, be more sudden and rapid, and the heart may be brought into more violent action. The conditions under which the work is done are certainly less favorable than in the case of the mechanic, who is never embarrassed by weights or tight clothes.

Reference may be made to the 2d edition of this work for figures and descriptions of the continental plans, and to the Reports of the War Office Committee on Knapsacks and Accoutrements, for fuller details than can be given here. For the present system, see Valise Equipment for Infantry Regiments, Instructions for Fitting the, 1878.

In the infantry the amount of aneurism is slightly below that of the other arms, but not much so. The hard work in the infantry is the running drill when the weights are carried, bayonet exercise, and long marches; but though severe, it is not so excessive as to lead us to think it would do injury to strong men if all circumstances were favorable.

During war the amount of labor undergone is sometimes excessive, as will be clear from what is said in the next section, and in the rapid campaigns of modern times, very young and weakly men are soon exhausted.

A soldier requires to be trained for the ordeal of active service, and this is now done in our army by a series of gymnastic exercises and systematic marches, intended to develop every muscle, to make the artillery or the cavalry man able to vault on his horse, and the foot soldier to run and to escalade, and to march great distances without fatigue.

Gymnastic Exercises.-All military nations have used in their armies a system of athletic exercises. The Greeks commenced such exercises when the increase of cities had given rise to a certain amount of sedentary life. The Romans began to use athletic training in the early days of the Republic, entirely with a view to military efficiency. The exercises were continuous, and were not alternated with periods of complete idleness.

The officers exercised with the men. At a later day, we are told that Marius never missed a single day at the Campus Martius; and Pompey is said by Sallust to have been able at fifty-eight years of age to run, jump, and carry a load as well as the most robust soldier in his army.

Swimming was especially taught by the Romans, and so essential were the gymnastic exercises deemed that, to express that a man was completely ignorant, it was said "he knew neither how to read nor swim." The gymnastic exercises were the last of the old customs which disappeared before the increasing luxury of the latter empire.

In the feudal times the practice of the weapons was the best gymnastic exercise; every peasant in England was obliged to practise with the bow; the noblemen underwent an enormous amount of exercise, both with and without arms, and on foot and horseback.

After the invention of gunpowder the qualities of strength and agility became of less importance for the soldier, and athletic training was discontinued everywhere. But within the last few years the changing conditions of modern warfare have again demanded from the soldier a degree of endurance and of rapidity of movement which the wars of the eighteenth century did not require. And the population generally of this country have of late years become alive to the necessity of compensating, by some artificial system of muscular exercise, the sedentary life which so many

lead.

In our own time, the first regular gymnasium appears to have been established at Schwefental, in Saxony, by Saltzmann, with a view of giving health to the body, strengthening certain muscles, and remedying deformities. About sixty years ago Ling also commenced in Sweden the system of movements which have made his name so celebrated. Switzerland, Spain, and France followed, and of late years in Germany many gymnastic societies (Turner-Verein) have been founded in almost all the great cities, and the literature of gymnasticism is now a large one. In our own country, the outdoor and vigorous life led by the richer classes, and by many working men, rendered this movement less necessary, but of late years societies have been formed, gymnasia established, and athletic sports encouraged in many places.

Among armies, the Swedish and Prussian were the first to attempt the

physical training of their soldiers. France followed in 1845, and ever since a complete system of gymnastic instruction has been carried on in the French army, and a military gymnastic-school exists at Vincennes, where instructors for the army are taught.

In the English army this matter attracted less attention until after the Crimean war, when the establishment of gymnasia as a means of training and recreation were among some of the many reforms projected by Lord Herbert. In 1859 General Hamilton and Sir G. Logan, lately DirectorGeneral of the Army Medical Department, were sent over to inspect the systems in use on the Continent, and presented a very interesting Report, which was subsequently published. A grant of money was immediately taken for a gymnasium at Aldershot, and this has now been in operation for several years, under the direction of Colonel Hammersley, with most satisfactory results. Gymnasia are now ordered to be built at all the large stations, and a complete code of instructions, drawn up by Mr. Maclaren of Oxford, is published by authority.'

The instructions have two great objects-1st, To assist the physical development of the recruit; 2d, To strengthen and render supple the frame of the trained soldier. Every recruit is now ordered to have three months' gymnastic training during (or, if judged expedient by a medical officer, in lieu of part of) his ordinary drill. Two months are given before he commences rifle practice, and one month afterward. This training is superintended by a medical officer, who will be responsible that it is done properly, and who will have the power to continue the exercises beyond the prescribed time, if he deems it necessary. The exercise for the recruit is to last only one hour a day, and in addition he will have from two to three hours of ordinary drill.

The trained infantry soldier is ordered to go through a gymnastic course of three months' duration every year, one hour being given every other day. The cavalry soldier is to be taught fencing and sword exercise in lieu of gymnastics.

The "Code of Instructions" drawn up by Mr. Maclaren consists of two parts, elementary and advanced exercises. The exercises have been arranged with very great care, and present a progressive course of the most useful kind. The early exercise commences with walking and running; leaping, with and without the pole, follows; and then the exercises with apparatus commence, the order being the horizontal beam, the vaulting bar, and the vaulting horse. All these are called exercises of progression. The elementary exercises follow, viz., with the parallel bars, the pair of rings, the row of rings, the elastic ladder, the horizontal bar, the bridge ladder, and the ladder plank. Then follow the advanced exercises of climbing on the slanting and vertical pole, the slanting and vertical rope, and the knotted rope.

Finally, the most advanced exercises consist of escalading, first against a wall, and then against a prepared building.

In the French army swimming and singing are also taught. Both are very useful; the singing is encouraged, not as a matter of amusement (though it is very useful in this way), but as a means of improving the lungs.

Swimming should be considered an essential part of the soldier's edu

1 1 Gymnastic Exercises, etc., 1877. Mr. Maclaren has also published two other works of great utility; a System of Training and Physical Education. This last work should be in the hands of every one.