100 steps are returned to. But the soldiers themselves often set the step; the grenadiers and the voltigeurs alternately leading. Four kilometres (= 24 miles) per hour is considered a good general average (Morache).

The soldier, in this country, when he marches in time of peace in heavy order, carries his pack, kit, haversack, water-bottle, great-coat, rifle, and ammunition (probably twenty rounds). In India he does not carry his pack or great-coat.

There is a very general impression that the best marchers are men of middle size, and that very tall men do not march so well.

Length of the March.-In "marching out" in time of peace, which is done once or twice a week in the winter, the distance is 8 or 10 miles.' In marching on the route or in war, the distance is from 10 or 12 miles to occasionally 18 or 20, but that is a long march. A forced march is any distance-25 to 30, and occasionally even 40 miles being got over in twentyfour hours. In the French army the length of march is from 20 to 25 kilometres (12 to 15 miles). In the Prussian army the usual march is 14 miles (English); if the march is continuous, there is a halt every fourth day.

Conditions rendering Marches Slower. The larger the body of men the slower the march; 14 miles will be done in six or seven hours by two or three regiments, but not under eight or nine hours by 8,000 or 10,000 men. A large army will not go over 14 miles under ten hours usually. A single regiment can do 20 miles in eight hours, but a large army will take twelve or fourteen, including halts. Head winds greatly delay marches; a very strong wind acting on a body of men will cause a difference of 20 to 25 per cent., or only 4 miles will be got over instead of 5.

Snow and rain, without head wind, delay about 10 to 15 per cent., or 4 miles are done instead of 5.

Of course, bad or slippery roads, deep sands, heavy snows, jungle and brushwood, are often acting against the soldier, and in hilly and jungly countries only 5 or 6 miles may be got over in a day.

Conditions adding to the Fatigue of Marching.-Heat-dust-thirstconstant halts from obstructions-want of food-bad weather, especially head winds with rain. In order to avoid heat and dust, it is desirable, when it can be done, to separate the cavalry and artillery from the infantry; to let the latter march in open order, and with as large a front as possible.

Instances of Marches during War.-It is most important for a soldier to know what has been done and what can be done with a large body of foot soldiers, and it is scarcely less interesting to the physiologist. In compar ing the marches of infantry, it must always be remembered how great an effect increasing the number of men has in lessening the rapidity and length of a march, and in increasing the fatigue. No large army has ever made the marches small bodies of troops have done.

At times the fatigue undergone by trained men has been something almost incredible. Wolfe mentions in one of his letters that in 1743, just before the battle of Dettingen, his regiment marched from Frankfort “two days and two nights with only nine or ten hours' halt." This would be a march of thirty-eight hours out of forty-eight. He gives the distance at about 40 miles, but it was probably more. The 43d, 52d, and 95th Regiments of Foot, forming the Light Division under Crawfurd, made a forced march in July, 1809, in Spain, in order to reinforce Sir Arthur Wellesley at the battle of Talavera. About fifty weakly men were left

1 Queen's Regulations (1881, section 16, para. 30). See also Field Exercise (1877).

behind, and the brigade then marched 62 miles in twenty-six hours, carrying arms, ammunition, and pack-in all, a weight of between 50 b and 60 b. There were only seventeen stragglers. The men had been well trained in marching during the previous month.

1

One of these regiments-the 52d-made in India, in 1857, a march nearly as extraordinary. In the height of the mutiny, intelligence reached them of the locality of the rebels from Sealkote. The 52d, and some artillery, started at night on the 10th of July, 1857, from Umritzur, and reached Goodasepore, 42 miles off, in twenty hours, some part of the march being in the sun. On the following morning they marched 10 miles, and engaged the mutineers. They were for the first time clad in the comfortable gray or dust-colored native khakee cloth.

A march of a small party of French was narrated by an officer of the party, who was afterward wounded at Sedan, to Dr. Frank. A company of a regiment of Chasseurs of MacMahon's army, after being on grand guard, without shelter or fire, during the rainy night of the 5th-6th August, 1870, started at three in the morning to rejoin its regiment in retreat on Niederbronn, after the battle of Weissenburg. It arrived at this village at 3.30 in the afternoon, and started again for Phalsbourg at six o'clock. The road was across the hills, and along forest tracts, which were very difficult for troops. It arrived at Phalsbourg at 8.30 o'clock in the evening of the next day. The men had, therefore, marched part of the night of the 5th-6th August, the day of the 6th, the night of the 6th-7th, and day of the 7th till 8.30 P.M. The halts were eight minutes every hour, from 3.30 to 6, one hour in the night of the 6th-7th, and 2 hours on the 7th. Altogether, including the halts, the march lasted 41 hours, and the men must have been actually on their feet about thirty hours, in addition to the guard duty on the night before the march.

An officer of a Saxon Fusilier regiment gave the following statement of a forced march in one of the actions at Metz, in 1870. The regiment was alarmed at midnight and marched at one A.M.; and continued marching with halts until 7 P.M.; they bivouacked for the night, marched at 7 the next morning, came into action at 1.30, and in the evening found themselves 15 kilometres beyond the field of battle. The total distance was 53 miles in about forty-two hours, with probably fifteen hours' halt.

Roth mentions that the 18th division of the Saxon army, in the various manœuvres about Orleans, marched, on the 16th and 17th December, 1870, 54 English miles.

Von der Tann's Bavarian army, in retreat on Orleans, marched 42 miles in twenty-six hours.

These were all forced marches for the purpose of coming into action or retiring after discomfiture. Apart from the Peninsular Light Division march, they show that in two days and one night a small body of men may cover 54 English miles, and that is probably near the limit of endur

ance.

1

The Light Division march is so excessive (62 miles in twenty-six

Napier's War in the Peninsula, 3d edit., vol. ii., p. 400; Moorsom's Record of the 52d Regiment, p. 115. Both authors state that the men carried between 50 fb and 60 Ib on this extraordinary march, but there seems a little doubt of this. During the Peninsular war the men carried bags, weighing about 2 lb, and not framed packs, and their kits were very scanty. Lord Clyde, in talking of this march to Surgeon-General Longmore, told him the men only carried a shirt and a spare pair of either boots or soles. He saw the men march in. In all probability also they would not carry their full ammunition.

hours, or 2.38 miles every hour, without reckoning halts), that it may be doubted if the distance was properly reckoned.'

When a large army moves it has never accomplished such distances.

In 1806 the French army marched on one occasion 49 kilometres, or 30 miles. On June 15, 1815, Napoleon made a forced march to surprise the Prussians and English, but only accomplished 30 kilometres or 18 miles.

In Sherman's celebrated march across the Southern States the daily distance was about 14 miles. When the Prussians advanced on Vienna, after the battle of Königgrätz, in 1866, they accomplished almost the same, and had also outpost duty every other night.

The Russians marched in the expedition to Khiva, in 1873, 468.7 miles (English) in 89 days, but as actual marching was done only on 44 days, the average daily march was (468.744) 10.65 miles; the longest march was 26 miles."

MacMahon's army, in its march to relieve Bazaine at Metz, could only accomplish about 10 miles daily, while the Crown Prince of Prussia in pursuit was far more rapid.

After Sedan, the Prussian and Saxon troops pushed on to Paris by forced marches, and accomplished on an average 35 kilometres, or 213 miles, daily, and they marched on some days 42 to 45 kilometres (26 to 28 miles); they started at five or six, and were on their ground from four to eight o'clock, the average pace being 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) per hour.

In the Indian mutiny several regiments marched 30 miles a day for several days.

When marches are continued day after day, an average of about 20 miles may be expected from men for two or three weeks, after which, probably, the amount would lessen.

It is difficult to estimate the labor of such marches, as besides the actual march there is often work in fetching water, cooking, pitching tents, sentry, outpost, and picket duty, etc. As 20 miles a day with 60 lb weight is equivalent to lifting 495 tons one foot, and there is always additional work to be done, it is clear that the labor is excessive, and must be prepared for, and that during the time the men must be well fed.

1 Sir William Cope, who was one of the officers of the 95th, says (in his History of the Rifle Brigade, formerly the 95th) that the distance was only 40 miles.

In 1709, on the 3d September, in order to secure the passage of the Haine, the Prince of Hesse-Cassel made a march of 49 English miles in 56 successive hours, with 4,000 foot and 60 squadrons (Coxe's Life of Marlborough, v. 10–21).

Alison (History of Marlborough, vol. ii., p. 27) says that "this rapidity of advance for such a distance had never been previously surpassed, though it has been outdone in later times." He refers in a footnote to Mackenzie's march to join Wellington at Talavera, which he gives as 62 English miles in 26 hours; also the Russian foot guards advancing to Paris in 1814, after the combat at Fère-Champenoise, marched 48 miles in 26 hours.

In the Times of 1873, a writer gives the following statement; he quotes from a despatch published in the London Gazette of 1859:-"During the day the troops from Khulkhulla marched 35 miles, and those from the camp 48 miles, and much of this under a more than usually hot sun." He also says that at the end of 1858, General Whitlock marched 86 miles in 37 hours to relieve Kirwee.

In April, 1859, Colonel De Salis (London Gazette, 1859) reported a march of not less than 40 miles. Captain Rennie's force also marched 40 miles in 24 hours. In the same number of the Times Captain Carleton states that Daly's Guide Corps marched from near Peshawur to Delhi, 580 miles, in 22 days. Sir Hope Grant says 750 miles in 28 days. He also says that the 1st Bengal Fusiliers (European) marched 68 miles in 38 hours.

In marching long distances, the extent of the marches, the halting grounds, etc., are fixed by the Quartermaster-General's department.

Occasionally the march has been divided, one part being done in the early morning, and the remainder late in the afternoon. It is, however, better to make the march continuous, and, if necessary, to lengthen the mid-day halt.

Order of March.-Whenever possible, it seems desirable to march in open order. Inspector-General J. R. Taylor has given evidence to show that a close order of ranks is a cause of unhealthiness in marching, similar to that of overcrowding in barracks; and the Medical Board of Bengal, in accordance with this opinion, recommended that military movements in close order should be as little practised as possible. There should also be as much interval as can be allowed between bodies of troops.

Effects of Marches.-Under ordinary conditions, both in cold and hot countries, men are healthy on the march.

But marches are sometimes hurtful—

1st. When a single long and heavy march is undertaken when the men are overloaded, without food, and perhaps without water. out, and the road becomes strewed with stragglers. life has been great.

The men fall Sometimes the loss of

Place the soldier as

The prevention of these catastrophes is easy. much as possible in the position of the professional pedestrian; let his clothes and accoutrements be adapted to his work; supply him with water and proper food, and exclude spirits; if unusual or rapid exertion is demanded, the weights must be still more lightened.

When a soldier falls out on the march he will be found partially fainting, with cold moist extremities, a profuse sweat everywhere; the pulse is very quick and weak-often irregular; the respiration often sighing. The weights should be removed, clothes loosened, the man laid on the ground, cold water dashed on the face, and water given to drink in small quantities. If the syncope is very alarming, brandy must be used as the only way of keeping the heart acting, but a large quantity is dangerous. If it can be obtained, weak hot brandy and water is the best under these circumstances. When he has recovered, the man must not march-he should be carried in a wagon, and in a few minutes have something to eat, but not much at a time. Concentrated beef-tea mixed with wine is a powerful restorative, just as it is to wounded men on the field.

2d. When the marches which singly are not too long, are prolonged over many days or weeks without due rest.

With proper halts men will march easily from 500 to 1,000 miles, or even farther, or from 12 to 16 miles per diem, and be all the better for it; but after the second or third week, there must be one halt in the week besides Sunday. If not, the work begins to tell on the men; they get out of condition, the muscles get soft, appetite declines, and there may be even a little anæmia. The same effects are produced with a much less quantity of work, if the food is insufficient. Bad food and insufficient rest are then the great causes of this condition of body.

In such a state of body malarious fevers are intensified, and in India attacks of cholera are more frequent. It has been supposed that the body is overladen with the products of metamorphosis, which cannot be oxidized fast enough to be removed.

Directly the least trace of loss of condition begins to be perceived in the more weakly men (who are the tests in this case), the surgeon should advise the additional halt, if military exigencies permit. On the halt day

the men should wash themselves and their clothes, and parade, but should not drill.

3d. When special circumstances produce diseases.

Exposure to wet and cold in temperate climates is the great foe of the soldier. As long as he is marching, no great harm results; and if at night he can have dry and warm lodgings, he can bear, when seasoned, great exposure. But if he is exposed at night as well as day, and in war he often is so, and never gets dry, the hardiest men will suffer. Affections arising from cold, such as catarrhs, rheumatism, pulmonary inflammation, and dysentery are caused.

These are incidental to the soldier's life, and can never be altogether avoided. But one great boon can be given to him; a waterproof sheet, which can cover him both day and night, has been found the greatest comfort by those who have tried it.

The soldier may have to march through malarious regions. The march should then be at mid-day in cold regions, in the afternoon in hot. The early morning marches of the tropics should be given up for the time; the deadliest time for the malaria is at and soon after sunrise. If a specially deadly narrow district has to be got through, such as a Terai, at the foot of hills, a single long march should be ordered; a thoroughly good meal, with wine, should be taken before starting, and if it can be done, a dose of quinine. If the troops must halt a night in such a district, every man should take five grains of quinine. Tents should be pitched in accordance with the rules laid down in the chapter on CAMPS, and the men should not leave them till the sun is well up in the heavens.

Yellow fever or cholera may break out. The rules in both cases are the same. At once leave the line of march; take a short march at right angles to the wind; separate the sick men, and place the hospital tent to leeward; let every evacuation and vomited matter be at once buried and covered with earth, or burnt, if possible, and employ natives (if in India) to do this constantly, with a sergeant to superintend. Let every duty-man who goes twice to the rear in six hours report himself, and, if the disease be cholera, distribute pills of acetate of lead and opium to all the noncommissioned officers. Directly a man who becomes choleraic has used a latrine, either abandon it, or cover it with earth and lime if it can be procured. If there is carbolic acid or chloride of zinc, or lime or sulphate of iron or zinc at hand, add some to every stool or vomit.

In two days, whether the cholera has stopped or not, move two miles; take care in the old camp to cover or burn everything, so that it may not prove a focus of disease for others. The drinking water should be con"stantly looked to. A regiment should never follow one which carries cholera; it should avoid towns where cholera prevails; if it itself carries cholera, the men should not be allowed to enter towns. Many instances are known in India where cholera was in this way introduced into a town. The men may suffer from insolation. This will generally be under three conditions. Excessive solar heat in men unaccustomed to it and wrongly dressed, as in the case of the 98th in the first China war, when the men having first landed from a six months' voyage, and being buttoned up and wearing stocks, fell in numbers during the first short march. A friend who followed with the rearguard informed Dr. Parkes that the men fell on their faces as if struck by lightning; on running up and turning them over, he found many of them already dead. They had, no doubt, struggled on to the last moment. This seems to be intense asphyxia, with sudden failure of the heart-action, and is the "cardiac variety" of Morehead.