army we ever had, and the most uniformly successful, we are told that the "sot and the drunkard were the objects of scorn." To make an army perfectly brave, it must be made temperate and chaste.

Good health and physical strength, by increasing self-confidence, increase courage; and self-reliance is the consequence of feeling that, under all circumstances, we can face the dangers and difficulties that present themselves.

Few wiser words were ever written than those by William Fergusson,' at the close of his long and eventful service.

"Of the soldier's life within these barracks," writes Fergusson, "there is much to be said, and much to be amended. To take his guards, to cleanse his arms, and attend parade, seems to comprehend the sum total of his existence; amusement, instruction beyond the drill, military labor, and extension of exercises, would appear, until very recently, to be unthought of; as it is impossible that the above duties can fully occupy his time, the irksomeness of idleness, that most intolerable of all miseries, must soon overtake him, and he will be driven to the canteen or the ginshop for relief.

'Labor in every shape seems to have been strictly interdicted to the soldier, as water for his drink. All, or nearly all, must have been bred to some trade or other before they became soldiers; but there is work for them no longer. Labor (the labor of field-works and fortifications) strengthens the limbs and hardens the constitution, but that is never thought of in our military life at home; so thought not the ancient Romans, whose military highways still exist, and who never permitted their soldiers to grow enervated in idleness during peace. Better, surely, would it be that every one should work at his own craft, or be employed on the public works, in regulated wholesome labor, than thus to spend his time in sloth and drunkenBut his exercises, without even going beyond the barrack premises, may be made manifold-running, wrestling, gymnastic games of every kind, swimming, leaping, pitching the bar, the sword exercise (that of the artillery), all that hardens the muscles and strengthens the limbs, should be encouraged; and when the weather forbids out-door pastimes, the healthy exercise of single-stick, in giving balance and power to the body, quickness to the eye, and vigor to the arm, may properly be taken as a substitute for the drill which, after the soldier has been perfected in his exercise, is always felt to be a punishment. So is the unmeaning evening parade and perpetual roll-calling.

ness.

"Foot-racing too, the art of running, so little practised, and so supremely useful, should be held amongst the qualities that constitute military excellence. It was so held at the Isthmian games of ancient Greece, and deserves a better place than has hitherto been assigned to it in the military pastimes of modern Britain. In our school-books we are told that the youth of ancient Persia were taught to launch the javelin, to ride the war-horse, and to speak the truth. Let the young British warrior be taught to use his limbs, to fire ball-cartridge, to cook his provisions, and to drink water. The tuition may be less classical, but it will stand him in far better stead during every service, whether at home or abroad.

"Regular bodily pleasurable exercise has been said to be worth a host of physicians for preserving military health; and occupation without distress or fatigue is happiness. The philosopher can make no more of it; and every idle hour is an hour of irksomeness, and every idle man

'Notes and Recollections of Professional Life, 1846, p. 49.

is, and must be, a vicious man, and to a certain extent an unhealthy one."

In many of the foreign stations of the British army, excellent opportunities exist for both occupying the men and developing their spirit. All history teaches us that a hunting race is a martial one. The remarkable fighting qualities of the English, as drawn in Froissart's "Chronicles," were owing to the fact that at that time they were "a nation of hunters," and trained from infancy to face dangers alone. In India there are many places where men could not only be allowed to hunt, but where such permission would be the greatest boon to the inhabitants.

The English army has hitherto offered but few incentives to good conduct, and scanty encouragement for the cultivation of martial qualities. Men must have rewards, and feel that earnest endeavor on their part to become in all respects better soldiers is neither overlooked nor unrewarded. The new order of things introduced by Lord Cardwell seems likely to open up means of progress for men who can acquire knowledge and deserve advancement.

The cultivation of the martial qualities of the soldier is in reality a part of hygiene considered in its largest sense, but this part of hygiene must be studied and carried into effect by the combatant officers. Let us trust it may not be long before they seriously study and endeavor, by precept and example, to promote the formation of those habits of boldness and endurance, and that fertility in resources, which are as necessary as technical knowledge to render an army the formidable instrument it is capable of becoming.

CHAPTER IV.

FOREIGN SERVICE.

THE foreign service of the British army is performed in every part of the world, and in almost every latitude, and probably more than two-thirds of each line soldier's service is passed abroad. The mere enumeration of the stations is a long task; the description of them would demand a large volume. In this short chapter, to give a few general statements as to climate and geology, and the past and present medical history of the stations, only can be attempted; such an outline as may give medical officers a sort of brief summary of what seems most important to be known.

Detailed and excellent accounts of most of the foreign stations exist, either in the independent works of army surgeons, such as those of Marshall, Hennen, Davy, and many others, or in reports drawn up for Government, and published by them. In the early "Statistical Reports of the Medical Department of the Army," short topographical notices of the stations were inserted; they are models of what such reports should be, and must have been drawn up by a master in the art of condensation. In the "Annual Reports" now published many excellent topographical descriptions will be found; and some of the Indian Governments have published complete descriptions of all their stations. In the " In the "Bombay Transactions," the Madras Medical Journal, and the "Bengal Indian Annals" are very full accounts of almost every station that has been, or is, occupied by European troops in India. Finally, in the "Indian Sanitary Report" is much important information on the meteorology and topography of the present Indian stations. Young medical officers first entering on foreign service are strongly advised to study these accounts of the stations in the command where they are serving; it will not only give them interest in their service, but will aid them in their search how best to meet the climatic or sanitary conditions which affect the health of the men under their charge.

years.

SECTION I.

MEDITERRANEAN STATIONS.1

GIBRALTAR.

Usual peace garrison = 4,500 to 6,000 men. Period of service, three Civil population = 18,381 (in 1881). Height of rock, 1,439 feet at highest point. Nature of rock, grey limestone, with many cavities filled with reddish clay; under town, an absorbent red earth forms the subsoil.

A very important Report on the Mediterranean Stations was published by the Barrack Improvement Commissioners (Dr. Sutherland and Captain Galton).--Blue Book, 1863.

=

Climate.-Mean temperature of year = 64.1;' hottest month, August (invariably in eight years) 76.6; coldest month, either January or February, in equal proportions, 53.77; amplitude of the yearly fluctuation, 22.83 (= difference between hottest and coldest months).

Mean monthly maximum and minimum in shade-hottest month, July or August-mean maximum 89°; coldest month, December, January, or February-mean minimum, 42°. Range of highest and lowest monthly means of maximum and minimum, 47°. Extreme yearly range (difference between highest and lowest temperature recorded in the time) about 50° to 58°. The minimum thermometer on grass sometimes falls to 4° or 6° below freezing.

Rainfall.-Mean, 32.8 inches (mean of seventy years, 1790-1860). Greatest amount in any one year, 75.8 (1855). Least amount in any one year, 15.1 (1800). The importance of this great variation, as regards sieges, is evident; Gibraltar might be embarrassed for water, if the rainfall were only 15 inches in a year of siege.

Number of Rainy Days = 68. The rain is therefore infrequent, but heavy. The rain falls in nine months, September to May; greatest amount in January and November; most rainy days in April. Summer, rainless.

Mean dew-point of year..

67.9°

7.5

70.7

3.25

69.1

Mean highest dew-point in August.
Lowest dew-point in January or February..... 43.5°

Gibraltar is thus seen to be rather a dry climate; at any rate, the air is on an average only three parts saturated with moisture, and therefore evaporation from the skin and lungs will be tolerably rapid, provided the wind moves freely. It is certainly not a moist insular climate, as might have been anticipated. At the times of rain, however, and during the fogs and moist sirocco, the air is nearly saturated.

Winds.-Chiefly N.W. or S.W. or W., in January, April, May, June, and October. Easterly in July, August, and September. But sometimes the easterly winds are more prevalent, or may be moderate for almost the whole year. The east and south-east winds are sirocco (Levanteros), and are often accompanied by rain and fogs.

Sanitary Conditions.

Water Supply. The quantity was formerly very deficient; in 1861 only 2 gallons daily were supplied for non-commissioned officers and privates.

Sources.-Wells and tanks, rain water, and a small aqueduct carrying surface water. Very large tanks have been constructed in two of the

1 Mean of eight years' observations by the Royal Engineers (1853–60), as given in the Barrack Commissioners' Blue Book (1863).

2 Of the eight years (1853-60) given in the report above quoted, the difference between the monthly mean maximum and minimum is so much less in the last three years, as to make one suspect some error in observation. In 1880 the mean maximum in July was 87.4°, the mean minimum in January 47.9°-range 39.5°; absolute maximum 98.8° in August, absolute minimum 42.5° in January-range 49.3°.

ravines, with arrangements for passing into them a large amount of surface water; and fresh wells have been dug at the north end, near the neutral ground, which yield a large supply of water.

Quality. The most of the well water is very hard, and in some cases almost brackish. In one sample analyzed at Netley there were nearly 83 grains of chlorine per gallon, equal to nearly 140 grains of alkaline chlorides. Some of the wells contain a good deal of organic matter, while others are comparatively free. In most of them there is a large quantity of nitrates, pointing unequivocally to the oxidation of animal organic matter. Recent experimental borings have not been very encouraging as regards quality of water.' The tank water is good when filtered; but the tanks require frequent inspection and cleaning.

Many of the houses of the civilians have tanks, and no new house is allowed to be built without a tank. The distribution of water, both to soldiers and civilians, is defective; it is almost entirely by hand.

Drainage. The sewers have been much improved. Surgeon-General Munro, C.B., reported in 1880 that "the system was excellent," although the working was defective. Steps were taken to remedy this.

2

66

Barracks.-More than half the garrison is in casemates, which have been described as mere receptacles of foul air, damp, dark, and unwholesome. The barracks are, for the most part, badly arranged, and are overcrowded; the average cubic space in 1862 was only about 450 feet, and the average superficial space under 40. Ventilation was very defective, especially in the casemates. The means of ablution and the latrines and In all those points, however, great improvement has taken place. The duties are not heavy, and the rations are said to be good. In 1860 some improvements were made in the dress of the troops, and a light summer suit ordered. Flannel next the skin has been recommended strongly for Gibraltar, on account of the occasional cold winds.

urinals were also defective.

Health of the Civil Population.

Gibraltar is now a place of considerable trade; whether the Government have been right in allowing a mass of people to herd closely together in the midst of the most important fortress we possess, is very questionable. In case of a siege they would be a serious embarrassment, and even in time of peace they are objectionable. The health of this community is bad; in 1860, the northern district, where population is densest, gave 38 deaths per 1,000, or excluding cholera, 33.5; in the more thinly populated southern end, the mortality was 27.5 per 1,000, or more than St. Giles', in London. The deaths in children under one year form 17.33 per cent. of the total mortality. The prevailing causes of this mortality are fevers (in all probability typhoid), and tuberculous consumption, which causes 13 per cent. of the total deaths at all ages, or 37.6 per cent. of the total deaths at the soldiers' ages. Dysentery and diarrhoea are common.

In this compressed and dirty population several great epidemics have occurred. The bubo plague does not appear to have been seen since 1649, but the earlier records are very imperfect; yellow fever, however, prevailed in 1804, 1810, 1813, and 1828. Cholera has prevailed several times; the last time was in 1865.

1 For analyses of water of Gibraltar, see Reports on Hygiene, Army Medical Reports, vols. xviii., xix., xx., and xxi.

* Barrack Commissioners' Report, p. 37.