but in former days an easier explanation was given. It was held to be the climate; and the climate, as in other parts of the world besides the West Indies, became the convenient excuse for pleasurable follies and agreeable vices. In order to do away with the effects of this dreaded climate, some mysterious power of acclimatization was invoked. The European system required time to get accustomed, it was thought, to these climatic influences, and in order to quicken the process various measures were proposed. At one time it was the custom to bleed the men on the voyage, so that their European blood might be removed, and the fresh blood which was made might be of the kind most germane to the West Indies. At other times an attack of fever (often brought on by reckless drinking and exposure) was considered the grand preservative, and the seasoning fever was looked for with anxiety. The first statistical report of the army swept away all these fancies, and showed conclusively that instead of prolonged residence producing acclimatization and lessening disease, disease and mortality increased regularly with every year of residence.

The progress of years has given us a different key to all these results. It is now fully recognized that in the West Indies, as elsewhere, the same customs will insure the same results. Apart from malaria, we hold our health and life almost at will. The amount of sickness has immensely decreased; occasionally in some stations which used to be very fatal (as at Trinidad) there has not been a single death in a year among 200 men. Among the measures which have wrought such marvels in the West Indies have been

1. A better supply of food; good fresh meat is now issued, and vegetables, of which there is an abundance everywhere.

2. Better water.

3. More room in barracks, though the amount of cubic space is still small.

4. Removal of some of the stations from the plains to the hills; a measure which has done great good, but which can explain only a portion of the improvement. The proper height to locate troops is by most army surgeons considered to be at some point above 2,500 feet.

5. Better sewage arrangements, and more attention generally to sanitary conservancy.

6. A more regular and temperate life, both in eating and drinking, on the part both of officers and men.

7. The occupancy of the unhealthy places, when retained as stations, by black troops.

8. A better dress. It is only, however, within recent years that a more suitable dress has, at the instance of the late Sir J. B. Gibson, formerly Director-General, A.M.D., been provided for the West Indian Islands.

The army stations in the West Indies are Jamaica, Barbadoes, Trinidad, St. Vincent; the last three being included in the term Windward and Leeward Command." British Guiana, on the mainland, is part of this command. There are small parties of artillery and some black troops in Honduras and the Bahamas.

The period of service is now three or four years: formerly it was eleven or twelve, but this was altered after the first statistical report. Usually the Mediterranean regiments pass on to the West Indies, and subsequently to The total number of men serving in the West Indies is now very

Canada.

small. The proper time for arriving in the West Indies is in the beginning of

the cold season, viz., about the beginning of December, when the hurricanes and autumnal rains are usually over.

JAMAICA.

Present strength of white garrison, 200 to 300; black troops, 500 to 600. Population of island estimated at 560,000. A range of lofty hills (Blue Mountains) divides Jamaica into two parts, connected by a few passes. The troops were formerly stationed chiefly in the south plains, at Kingston (30,000 inhabitants), Port Royal, Spanish Town, Up-Park Camp, Fort Augusta, etc. After the Maroon war in 1795 some troops were stationed at Maroon Town (2,000 feet above the sea) on the north side, and at Montego Bay. Subsequently Stony Hill (1,380 feet above the sea), at the mouth of one of the passes, was occupied.

Since 1842 some, and now nearly all the troops, are at Newcastle, in the hills, 4,000 feet above the sea, with detachments at Kingston and Port Royal. The other stations are now disused for white troops. The sanitary. condition at Newcastle was formerly not good; the sewage arrangements are very imperfect; it is now somewhat improved.

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At

Climate. The climate is very different at the different stations. Kingston (sea-level)-temperature, mean of year 78°; hottest month, July, mean = 81°.71; coldest month, January, mean = 75°.65; mean yearly fluctuations 6°.06. Undulations trifling. The climate is limited and equable. At Newcastle the mean annual temperature is about 66°; hottest month, August 67°.75; coldest month, February = 61°. The diurnal range is considerable, but the annual fluctuation is trifling (about 6°). The mean of the year is therefore much lower than on the plains; the amplitude of the yearly fluctuation about the same; the diurnal change greater.

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Humidity. This is considerable in the plains-often from 80 to 90 per cent. of saturation=7 to 9 grains of vapor in a cubic foot. At Newcastle the mean yearly dew-point is about 60°; the amount of vapor in a cubic foot of air is 5.77; the mean yearly relative humidity is 68 per cent. of saturation.

Rain.-Amount on the plains = 50 to 60 inches, in spring and autumn, viz., April and May, and October and November. Showers in July and August.

Winds.-Tolerably regular land winds at night, and sea breezes in the hot and dry months during the heat of the day. The central chain of mountains turns the northeast trade wind, so that it reaches the south side diverted from its course; from December to February the wind is often from the north, and brings rain and fogs ("wet northers"). The southwest wind in April and May is very moist. The hurricane months are from the end of July to the beginning of November. The climate in the plains is therefore hot, equable, and humid.

Health of the Black Civil Population.

Of the specific diseases, small-pox and the other exanthemata are com-> mon. Spotted typhus is said to be unknown; typhoid is said to be uncommon, but is probably more common than is supposed. Influenza has prevailed at times, and also the so-called dandy or polka (Dengue). Cholera has prevailed severely. Malarious fever is common over the whole of the south plains. Yellow fever is common, though less frequent and severe among the blacks than the whites. Dysentery is common,

though it has always been less frequent than among the troops. Organic heart disease is frequent. Liver diseases are uncommon. Spleen disease, in the form of leucocythæmia, is common among the blacks (Smarda). Gout is said to be frequent, and scrofula and rickets to be infrequent. Syphilis is not common, but gonorrhoea is. Cancroid of the skin and elephantiasis of the Arabs (Pachydermia) are common. Leprosy is also seen.

Health of the Troops.

In the years 1790-93 the annual mortality of the white troops varied in the different stations from 111 (Montego Bay) to 15.7 per 1,000 of strength at Stony Hill (1,380 feet above sea-level). In the years 1794-97 the mortality was much greater; the most unhealthy regiment in the plains. lost 333; the most healthy, 45.4 per 1,000 of strength; at the hill station of Maroon Town (2,000 feet) the mortality was, however, only 15.6 per 1,000. In the years 1817-36 the mean mortality was 121.3; the mean of the four healthiest years gave 67, and of the four unhealthiest years 259 per 1,000. The causes of death in these twenty years were

The admissions in these years were 1,812 per 1,000 of strength. In 1837-55 the following were the mean results: strength-white troops, 60.8; black troops, 38.2. white troops, 1,371; black troops, 784. So that the one-half.

Mortality per 1,000 of Admissions per 1,000 mortality had declined

In 1864 the mortality was much below the home standard. In 1867 it ran up nearly to the old amount, from the prevalence of yellow fever, which in that year prevailed again in Newcastle, and caused a greater loss than it had done in 1860. The statistics of the white troops are—

Since 1875 no separate return is furnished in the A.M.D. Reports. An increase in admissions and mortality occurred in 1865 and 1866, owing to the exposure of the troops in the time of the negro disturbances, and their subsequent partial location on the plains.

Before this period Jamaica contrasted favorably even with home service, and particularly so with India.

A decrease of admissions in 1859-64 was chiefly owing to the comparatively small number of cases of paroxysmal disease; a decline consequent on the removal of most of the troops from the plains (in 1859 Newcastle gave 29.1 admissions, and Port Royal, on the plain, 443.5 per 1,000 of strength, from malarious disease). In 1863 some white troops were sent to Up-Park Camp, and furnished a large number of malarious cases (547.6 admissions per 1,000 of strength), while at Newcastle they were only 48 per 1,000. The decrease in the mortality in the years 1859-64 was owing to lessened fever and dysentery. Among the black troops there is now greater sickness and mortality than among the whites; the mortality in 1837-55 was 38.2 per 1,000; in 1859–65 it was 27.33; in 1866, 23.03; in 1875 it was only 14.67. There is among these troops a large mortality from paroxysmal fevers, phthisis, and diseases of the alimentary canal; and it is evident that their condition requires a close examination.

The mortality of the white troops shows a marked increase with age. The following seem to be the most important points connected with the white troops which require notice.

It is impossible to avoid paroxysmal fevers without placing all the troops in the hills, and it is very desirable Newcastle should be made the only station for white troops.

The possibility of yellow fever occurring at an elevation of 4,000 feet was shown by the appearance of yellow fever at Newcastle in 1860 and 1867. In 1860 occurred the remarkable instances of contagion on board the ships Icarus and Imaum described by Dr. Bryson. Whether yellow fever was imported into Newcastle or not was a subject of discussion; it certainly appears probable that it was carried there; but the important point for us is that mere elevation is not a perfect security. There were, however, only a small number of cases. In 1867, when yellow fever again appeared at Newcastle, it was imported, apparently, from Kingston and Up-Park Camp.

In the returns for a number of years, cases were returned as "continued fever;" it had never been clearly made out whether or not these were cases of typhoid fever until 1873-4, when a sharp epidemic occurred at Newcastle.

Formerly there was a large number of cases of phthisis; phthisis is now uncommon; in 1817-36 lung diseases (almost entirely phthisis) caused 7.5 deaths per 1,000 of strength, or more than in England. In 1859-66 the ratio was only 1.42 per 1,000 of strength; and in 1861, out of 636 men there was not a single death, though four men were sent home with consumption. In 1865 there was no death; eight men were sent home.

At Newcastle there occurred for some years an excess of affections of the alimentary canal, chiefly indigestion; at present these have lessened, but it would be important to make out the cause. In 1860 there was not

a single admission from dysentery at any station.

In the worst times in Jamaica it was always remarked that there was rather a singular exemption from acute liver disease; very few cases appear in the returns under hepatitis; whether this is a matter of diagnosis, or whether there was really an immunity compared with India or the Mauritius, is a question of great interest which cannot now be solved. At present, liver disease unconnected with drinking is uncommon.

There is still too much drinking, and the medical officers have strongly advised the issue of beer instead of the daily dram.

Venereal diseases have never prevailed much in Jamaica, they have caused, on an average, from 70 to 90 admissions per 1,000 of strength. In 1862 there were only 47 admissions per 1,000 of strength. On an average in 1859-65, enthetic diseases gave 118 admissions per 1,000. This is owing to the connection usually formed between the black women and the soldiers, and to a lessened amount of promiscuous intercourse.

The history of the years 1865-67 shows that the greatest care and the most judicious arrangement of the men is necessary to guard against a recurrence of the old evils.

The black troops gave a mortality of 24.6 per 1,000 (mean of ten years, 1861-70), especially from phthisis.

TRINIDAD.

Strength of garrison, 200 men. Civil population (in 1881), about 153,000.

Geology. Tertiary formation of miocene age; central range of hills is an indurated formation of cretaceous age; the northern littoral range consists of micaceous slates, sandstones, limestones, and shales. The highest hill is 3,012 feet; the central hill (Tamana) is 1,025; one-seventeenth of the island is swampy.

Climate.-Temperature of the plains: Mean of year about 79°.3; coldest month, January 78°; hottest month, May = 81°.5; next hottest, October = 80°.4. Mean annual fluctuation, 3°.5. The climate is therefore very equable and limited. There are, however, cold winds from the hills blowing over small areas.

Hygrometry.-Mean dew-point, 75°.1; mean relative humidity = 81 per cent. of saturation; mean weight of vapor in a cubic foot = 9.4 grains; most humid month is May, as far as the amount of vapor is concerned. Month with greatest relative humidity, August.

Winds from east to northeast and southeast. oppressive.

West winds rare, and

Rain on the plains, about 60 to 70 inches. Greatest rainfall in one day, 4.67 inches. Dry season, December to May. June and July showery. Heavy rain in August, September, and October.

Sanitary Condition.-St. James's Barrack is on a depression on an alluvial soil three miles from Port of Spain, the capital; it is one mile from the Cocorite, and three from the Great Eastern Swamp; the drainage, for many years most defective, is now improved, as the main sewer is carried to the sea. On many occasions yellow fever has prevailed in this barrack, and nowhere else in the island; the last occasion was in 1858-59, and then it was proposed by Dr. Jameson (the principal medical officer) to erect barracks on a spot 2,200 feet above sea-level.

The capital, the Port of Spain (32,000 inhabitants), is built at the principal outfall of the island; it is on a low and unhealthy plain. Formerly, it was so unhealthy as to be scarcely habitable, but after being well drained and paved by Sir Ralph Woodford, it has become much healthier. This was the result of great sanitary efforts in a very unpromising locality, and

should be a lesson for all climates.

There is still, however, much malarious disease, dysentery, and at times yellow fever; but this last disease has occasionally been very severe at St. James's Barracks, without a single case being seen in Port of Spain. The ascent of the malaria from the barrack plain is certainly more than 500, and probably as much as 1,000 feet.