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which the skins cone into the hands of the leatherdresser.

There are manufacturers called fellmongers, whose business it is to bring sheep-skins into a certain state of preparation before the leather-dresser commences his operations thereon. The skins from nearly all the sheep slaughtered are conveyed to a skin-market and there sold by factors or salesmen, who act for the butchers, to the fellmongers. The skins are brought and sold with the wool on, and the labors of the fellmonger relate to the separation of the one from the other, and the disposal of the wool to the woolstaplers, and the "pelts" or stripped skins to the leatherdressers and the parchment-makers. The trade of a fellmonger is more dirty and disagreeable than even that of a leather-dresser, on account of the mode necessary to be adopted for the separation of the wool from the pelt. These remarks, so far as the leather-dresser is concerned, apply only to sheep-skins, for the skins of the goat, the kid, the buck, the doe, and one or two other kinds of animals which have a hairy rather than a woolly covering, come into his hands before the hair has been removed; and the process of "unhairing" is then effected.

price than that made from whole skin. The principle of the machine is this: Two rollers, ranged horizontally in a frame, are made to rotate in opposite directions, the vacancy between them being only just sufficient to admit a soft wetted sheep-skin or pelt. The rotation of the rollers causes the skins to be drawn slowly between them; but it can not do so without encountering the blade of a very sharp knife, which has a reciprocating horizontal motion, in such a position as to cut the skin into two thicknesses as it passes the knife, one-half passing over, and the other under the blade. A most ingenious contrivance

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Leather-splitting Machine.

In the manufacture of sheep-skins into " imitation" morocco, and into roan leather, a routine of operations occurs not very different from that sketched above. Both kinds are prepared by sumach-tanning; and the preparatory and subsequent processes are for the most part similar to those necessary for goat-skin morocco. There are, however, one or two points of difference which must be noticed. The skin of the sheep, from the organization which promotes the rapid growth of wool, contains a much larger amount of grease, or is adopted for yielding to any inequalities which may oleaginous matter, than the skin of the goat; and it is occur in the skin. One of the rollers is made in essential that this be removed before the tanning prin- several pieces, so adjusted that in passing over any ciple is brought to act upon the skin. To effect this, thickened portions of the skin the common aperture the skins, shortly before being placed in the sumach- between the rollers is widened at that part. It is one tan, are subjected to the action of a hydrostatic-press, of the consequences of the construction of the machine, which by a pressure of many tons forces out the extra- that one of the semi-thicknesses or sections must be neous matters from the pores of the skin. The kind equable and level in every part, while any inequalities of leather called " roan" does not present the wrinkled which might have existed in the original skin will be or grained appearance of morocco leather, a difference thrown into the other section. Either section, the which results from the different mode of finishing" grain" side or the "flesh" side, may have this after the dying; the grooved balls not being used for the roan leathers.

The kind of sheep-skin leather called "skiver," used for common bookbinding, hat-linings, pocket-books, work-box covers, and other cheap purposes, deserves notice for a process the most remarkable, in a mechanical point of view, which these establishments present we mean the "splitting" of a skin into two thinner skins. Thin as a sheep-skin is, and supple when wetted, it might be thought that the operation of splitting or slicing it into halves, without cutting holes in either, would be an impossible task; yet this is effected with the utmost accuracy. There is a machine for splitting hides; but the small thickness of a sheep-skin requires peculiar arrangements for effecting a similar bisection. The object aimed at in this operation is twofold, viz., to obtain a thin kind of leather for some purposes for which a sheep-skin in the natural state would be too thick, and to obtain a quality of leather which could be sold at a lower

equable thickness given to it, according to the mode in which the skin is adjusted on the rollers; and the two portions may have various ratios given to their thicknesses, according to the position of the vibrating knife opposite the opening between the rollers. A sheep-skin of the usual size occupies about two minutes in splitting, during which time the knife makes from two to three thousand vibratory motions to and fro, cutting a minute portion of the skin at each movement. The preceding cut represents a sheep-skin undergoing the process of splitting in one of these machines.

As the thin" skivers" are more readily acted on by the sumach-tan than the thicker goat-skins, they are not sewn up into bags like the latter, but are immersed in the sumach-tub in an open state, and are tanned in a very short space of time. The subsequent operations require less delicacy than in the preparation of morocco leather, and do not call for much remark.

Among the varieties of leather tanned with sumach

is the " enamelled leather," now occasionally employed | parting that beautiful softness and plumpness which for ladies' shoes. This is made of seal-skin or thin such leather presents. About twelve pounds of alum calf-skin, coated, after tanning, with a peculiar kind of varnish or japan capably of yielding a brilliant gloss.

3. Leather prepared with Alum.-The technical name of "tawing" is frequently applied to the general routine of operations whereby alumed leather is produced. This variety of leather is in many cases left white or undied, and has a peculiar softness when finished. The skins which undergo the process of "tawing" are those of the kid, the sheep, and the lamb; the first-named of which yields the well-known "kid leather" of which gloves and ladies' shoes are made; while the white leather made from sheep-skin is used for lining shoes and other inferior purposes. The cheap kid gloves which are displayed in the shop-window of the hosier are generally made from lamb-skin, and may be considered as an imitation kid.

The kid-skins which form the staple of this branch of the manufacture are brought from Italy: they are very small in size, and have the hair on. The first operation to which they are subjected is steeping for the space of three days, by which they become soaked and softened they are then "broken" on the flesh side, a process resembling that to which goat-skins are subjected the skin is laid on a beam or convex bench, with the flesh side uppermost, and is then scraped: this seems to facilitate the action of the lime in the

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next process. After the "breaking," the kid-skin is immersed in lime-water in a pit for about fourteen or sixteen days, by which the hair becomes in some measure loosened from the pelt; and at the end of this period the operation of "unhairing" is effected in the same manner as for goat-skins. In a few days after this process the skin is "fleshed," to procure a clean surface on the inner side, and after this the pores are opened and the lime "killed" (to use a technical term). This opening of the pores is effected not by the alkaline solution called the " pure," as in goat-skin dressing, but by steeping the skin in a solution or "drench" of bran and water. When this is effected, the skin is laid down on the "beam" with the grainside uppermost, and "struck," or forcibly worked with a knife, whereby the impurities are worked out from within the pores. After a further steeping for a day or two in bran and water, the skin is in a state to undergo that process which constitutes the principal difference between sumached leather and alumed leather. Instead of being sewn up into bags filled with sumach liquor, and immersed in a tub of hot water, the skins are put into a kind of barrel called a "roundabout:" this barrel has a door or opening in one part of its curved surface, through which the skins are placed and when the water and ingredients are added, the door is closed, and the barrel made to rotate rapidly. The effect of the rotation is to cause the impregnated liquor to act intimately on every part of the skin. The substances placed in the barrel to act on this skin are, for the commoner kinds of leather, alum and salt; and for the better kinds, alum, salt, flour, and yolk of eggs: these latter ingredients are for the most part absorbed into the substances of the finer kid leathers, and seem to have the effect of im

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and a little more of common salt are sufficient for about two hundred skins. Sometimes the skins are not put into the "roundabout," but are merely steeped in the solution in an open tub: whether the one or the other plan be adopted, however, a period of five minutes is sufficient to produce the effect. part of the "tawing" process wherein eggs are employed, the eggs are broken, in the proportion of one to each skin, and the yolks only are mixed with water and a little meal in a tub: the skins are then introduced, and are trampled by the naked feet of a man until the egg has been thoroughly imbibed.

The tawed skins, after being hung up in a fort to dry, are stretched out, smoothed and softened, by the process of "staking," represented in the annexed cut.

'Staking' tawed leather.

In one of the upper rooms of the establishment are a number of wooden blocks, having at the upper end a steel instrument, shaped somewhat like a cheese-cutter, but not having a very sharp edge. Over the semicircular edge of this instrument each skin is drawn very forcibly, the workman holding it in both hands, and scraping the surface in various directions on the steel edge. This has the effect of stretching out the skin to its full extent, and of removing all the rigidity and stiffness which it had acquired in the previous processes. This is, indeed, one of the many processes of violent rubbing, scraping, or friction, to which every kind of leather is more or less subject in the progress of manufacture; but in this instance the rubbing is effected when the leather is nearly in a dry state.

For the production of "imitation" kid leathers the skin of lambs is employed; and for this purpose lamb-skins are imported from the shores of the Mediterranean. They are imported with the wool yet on them, and as this wool is valuable, the leather-manufacturer carefully removes this before the operations on the pelt commence. The wool is of a quality which would be greatly injured by the contact of lime; and therefore a kind of natural fermentation is brought about as a means of loosening the wool from the pelt. One of the buildings presents, on the

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ground-floor, a flight of stone steps leading down to a strange degree, is still applied to the leather proa range of subterranean vaults, or close-rooms, into which the lamb-skins are introduced, in a wet state, The chamois leather, whether of the superior kind after having been steeped in water, "broken" on the just alluded to, or of that more humble description flesh side, and drained. The temperature of these known as "wash-leather," is prepared nearly as folrooms is nearly the same all the year round, a result lows: The deer and sheep skins undergo the earobtained by having them excluded as much as possi- lier stages of preparation nearly in the same manner ble from the variations of external temperature; and as for other kinds of leather, such as washing, liming, the result is that the skins undergo a kind of putre-beaming, &c. It must be remarked, however, that factive or fermenting process, by which the wool the inferior or thinner kinds are generally made of becomes loosened from the pelt. During this chym-split skins, the more irregular of the two halves, genical change, ammonia is evolved in great abundance: erally the flesh side, being used for this purpose; the odor is strong and disagreeable; a lighted candle, the other half being alumed or tawed for "skiver" if introduced, would be instantly extinguished, and leather. In general, oil-leathers have the "grain" injurious effects would be experienced by a person surface of the skin entirely removed before any oil remaining long in one of the rooms. Each room is is applied; as this removal not only affords a much about ten feet square, and is provided with rails and softer surface, but greatly increases the extensibility bars whereon to hang the lamb-skins. The doors of the leather, which still remains sufficiently strong from all the rooms open into one common passage or and elastic for the purposes to which it is applied. vault, and are kept close except when the skins are This "frizing" or removal of the grain, is effected inspected. It is a point of much nicety to determine either by the edge of a round knife or a rubber of when the fermentation has proceeded to such an ex- pumice-stone. tent as to loosen the wool from the pelt; for if it be allowed to proceed beyond that stage, the pelt itself would become injured.

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When the fermentation is completed, generally in about five days, the skins are removed to a beam and there "slimed," that is, scraped on the flesh side to remove a slimy substance which exudes from the pores. The wool is then taken off, cleaned, and sold to the hatters for making the bodies of common hats. The stripped pelts are steeped in lime-water for about a week, to "kill" the grease, and are next "fleshed" on the beam. After being placed in a drench" or solution of sour bran, for some days, to remove the lime and open the pores, the skins are alumed and subjected to nearly the same processes as the true kid-skins. These Mediterranean lambskins do not in general measure more than about twenty inches by twelve; and each one furnishes leather for two pairs of small gloves. These kinds of leather generally leave the leather-dresser in a white state; but undergo a process of dying, softening, "striking," &c., before being cut up into gloves.

There are a few other kinds of skins prepared by aluming, but the general routine of processes is pretty much the same as herein described.

4. Leather prepared with oil.-The "killing" of the animal quality of skins whereby the skins are converted into leather, seems to consist in forcing out from the pores some albuminous substance, and replacing it with a substance of another kind. Thus in tanning hides, the tannin penetrates into the substance of the skin and combines therewith; in sumaching, the larger portion of the sumach does the same thing; so do the alum, salt, egg, and meal, in tawed leather; and lastly, so does the oil in the kind of leather now to be noticed.

The lime and other obstructions to the porosity of the skin having been removed by steeping in sour bran and water, the skins are wrung or pressed as dry as possible, and are then ready for the reception of the oil. This is forced into the pores in a curious manner.

A.R.H.

Oil-Leather Fulling-Stocks.

In the establishment are two pairs of " fulling-stocks," such as are represented in the preceding cut, and somewhat resembling those used in the woollen manufacture. Each pair consists of two stocks, which may be likened to heavy wooden hammers; the head, covered with copper, being attached to a long beam or handle lying in an inclined position. Near the lower end of each a wheel revolves, by which each hammer is in turn lifted up and let fall again, through That variety of leather called chamois, which is a space of about a foot. This they do in a kind of the characteristic of oil-leathers generally, was ori-trough, hat any substances which may be placed ginally a beautifully soft leather prepared from the in the boom of the trough receive a blow from each skin of the chamois goat. A similar mode of manu-stock every time it descends. The upper or handle facture is now adopted for sheep and other skins, end of each stock is so adjusted as to work on a pivbut the name of chamois, modified in the spelling toot or axis.

Into the trough connected with these fulling-stocks | all of which were drawn by a single flea. He made the leather is placed; the stocks are set in action; a small landau, which opened and shut by springs, and the leather is beaten alternately by one and the and with six horses harnessed to it, a coachman other until rendered as dry as possible. Cod-oil is sitting on the box, and a dog sitting between his legs, then poured on the skins in the fulling-machine, and four persons in the carriage, two footmen behind it, this is forcibly driven into the pores of the skins by and a postillion riding on one of the fore horses, another lengthened beating with the stocks. The which was also easily drawn along by a flea. He trough is so formed in an arc or curve, that as the likewise had a chain of brass, about two inches long, stocks beat the skins, the latter become turned gradu- containing 200 links with a hook at one end, and a ally over and over, whereby every part of each is padlock and key at the other, which the flea drew exposed to the operation. When the oil is beaten in, very nimbly along. Something of the same kind is the skins are removed, shaken out flat, hung out in now exhibiting in London. the air to dry, again put into the fulling-mill, supplied with fresh oil, and subjected to a renewed fulling with the stocks. Again and again is this repeated; oil being poured on the skins in small quantity, said that disobedience to parents is the beginning of and then beaten into the pores by means of the stocks. all crime. If this is true-and to a great extent it This occurs as many as eight or nine times, oil being undoubtedly is-how important that the habit of disoadded each time, and well beaten in, until two or bedience should never be formed! Beware, young three gallons of oil have been imbibed by one hun-reader, how you disobey the slightest command of your parents; for it will lead you to disobey others, and then to disobey the laws of your country and the laws of God.

dred skins.

When the oil is thus forced into the heart of the skins, they are placed in large tubs, where they undergo a kind of fermenting process, by which a more intimate action of the oil upon the fibres seems to be induced. These tubs are placed in one of the lower buildings near the fulling-stocks; and from them the skins, now converted into chamois leather, are removed, to be immersed in a weak solution of potash. This latter process is intended to remove whatever excess of oil may have remained in the leather. After being hung up to dry in the open air, the leather is finished.

OBEDIENCE TO PARENTS.-It has sometimes been

Is it too much to require that you should obey your parents? Surely it is not; "for this is right." Is obedience hard? Then it is because it is not cheerfully rendered. It was not hard for Martin Luther to obey; for he could say, "I had rather obey than work miracles." You can do nothing that will please and honor your parents more than cheerful but implicit obedience.

But obedience must be prompt and cheerful, or it ceases to be a virtue. He who always obeys with a sour countenance and angry words, is brother to the openly disobedient.

TO BLOSSOMS.

BY ROBERT HERRICK.

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BORN IN 1591.

CURIOUS FACTS.-The mite makes 500 steps in The case of Louis, Duke of Burgundy, presents a a second, or 30,000 in a minute. Allowing the horse to move at an equal ratio, he would perform 1,022 threat or punishment was ever necessary to make him When a child, no striking pattern of filial obedience. miles an hour. The journey from London to Birmingham would occupy but six minutes and a fraction. obey; for a word or even a look was sufficient. He There is another insect which may, in some measure, was always much grieved when his mother seemed rival the above in celerity of its motion, and itself' displeased with him, or spoke to him less kindly than usual. On such occasions, he would often weep, unrivalled in strength in proportion to its size. Al- and say to her, "Dear mother, pray be not angry with though it is generally disliked, and has not a very me; I will do what you please." Happy the parent fair reputation, yet to the eye of the naturalist it is who has such a child as Louis, Duke of Burgundy. rather a pleasing and interesting object. Its form, as examined by his microscope, is extremely elegant, and has an appearance as if clad in a coat of mail. It has a small head with large eyes, a clean and bright body, beset at each segment with numerous sharp and shining bristles. All its motions indicate agility and sprightliness, and its muscular power so extraordinary, as justly to excite our astonishment; indeed we know no other animal whose strength can be put in competition with (its name must come out at last) that of a common flea; for, on a moderate computation, it can leap to a distance of 200 times the length of its own body. A flea will drag after it a chain 100 times heavier than itself, and will eat ten times its own weight of provisions in a day. Mr. Boverich, an ingenious watchmaker, who, some years ago, lived in the Strand, London, exhibited to the public a little ivory chaise with four wheels, and all its proper apparatus, and a man sitting on the box,

FAIR pledges of a fruitful tree,
Why do ye fall so fast?
Your date is not so past,
But you may stay yet here awhile,
To blush and gently smile,
And go at last.
What! were ye born to be
An hour or half's delight,
And so to bid good night?
'T was pity Nature brought you forth
Merely to show your worth,

And lose you quite.

But you are lovely leaves, where we
May read, how soon things have
Their end, though ne'er so hrave;
And after they have shown their pride
Like you awhile, they glide

Into the grave.

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LOCAL MEMORIES OF GREAT MEN.

Burke.

the picture by G. Romney. At top, Westminster Hal and Beaconsfield Church, in which he was buried. Burke is addressing the House, and stands at the ba

left to spend some of the sweetest years of his life at Castle Roche, in the immediate neighborhood of the old castle of Kilcolman, the residence of that grea IN reviewing the early associations of the life of "Fairy Queen," and in the very midst of the lovely relative during the period of the composition of the this eminent man, one can not but think that Nature scenes which that poem, by its scarcely less lovely had intended him to have achieved his reputation in descriptions, has made familiar to the world. And the pleasant fields of poesy, rather than in the turbulent deep and permanent, undoubtedly, were the effects arena of politics; for not only was he related by the of these associations on his youthful mind; witness mother's side to one of England's greatest poets, whose his early poetical attempts, some of which exhibit Christian name he bore, but being removed at an early more than ordinary ability. But, above all, we owe age from Dublin, where he was born in 1730, he was to those associations, most probably, that deep and

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