the antients made the thickness of the columns to increase portionally to the distance between them. The reason as med for this practice by Vitruvius ( De Architectura,' lib. cap. 2) is that the columns with wide intervals, being more rounded by the air than those which are closer, appear that account to be more slender': it must be observed, wever, that the perceptions of magnitude depend partly on of distance; and a contrary effect frequently takes place objects viewed against the sky when conceived to be remote than they really are. INATIS. WOAD, P. Č.] ISCHY'ODUS, a genus of fossil fishes included in Chiby Agassize out,povsol Ledoyerhet af ISNARDIA, a genus of plants named by Linnæus in emory of M. Antoine Dante Isnard, member of the Acay of Sciences. It belongs to the natural order Onagrarieæ, has a 4-cleft calyx, 4 petals, 8 stamens, and a filiform with a clavate or cruciform stigma. There is one sh species of this genus. I. palustris has a procumbent ng glabrous stem, opposite ovate acute leaves, terminating pehole axillary solitary sessile flowers, with the petals It is found in pools and marshes in Europe, Siberia, nd Persia, and in Sussex in England. Su alternifolia has an erect branched stem, alternate leaves, aber sehrons on the margins, and hoary beneath. It is a ve of Virginia and Carolina, in marshy places, and has yellow petals. The root is used as an emetic, and is Bowman's Root. el zanzara)] None of the species of this genus possess qualities which ale them to cultivation except in botanical gardens. They y, however, be reared in a hot-bed, and then planted in an border in a moist situation. ab ZOIT J017 dat Den Gardener's Dictionary; Babington, British Bobos to sah sdt to Imounggirlto treapt SOCHROMATIC LINES are those coloured rings appear when a pencil of polarized light is transmitted the axis of a crystal, as mica or nitre, and is received in after passing through a plate of tourmaline. If a plate tre having its surfaces perpendicular to the axis of the prism, and highly polished, be placed between two of tourmaline having their axes at right angles to one and a lens of short focus be placed so as to transmit of the sky through the plates to the eye of the that focus falling a little below the surface of the the rays of light will be polarized by passing through plate of tourmaline, and there will be seen a series of ngs about each of two points as poles, forming together which may be considered as resembling lemniscates. the nature of the lemniscate, the rectangle contained by lines drawn from the poles to any point in the curve is ant; and the curves have received their designation from remstance that the tint of any one is represented by valent of such rectangle for that curve: when the is viewed through plates of nitre of different thicknesses, it depends also on the thickness of the plate. carves are conceived to exist on the surface of a sphere Pista point in the crystal is the centre; and when the alores of the crystal are at a considerable distance from ether, if the curves be projected on a plane, the tint ach curve will depend on the product of the sines of the subtended by two lines drawn from the poles to a point periphery, and also upon the length of the path deed by a ray of light in passing through the crystal. SOCRINITES, a genus of Crinoidea (Goldfuss). INOETES (from toos, equal, and eros, year), a cryptogamic of plants, belonging to the natural order Lycopodiacere. apsule of the plant does not open, and the fructification is es within the swollen base of the leaves; it has sporules w kinds, which are attached to filiform receptacles. The of fructification in this plant are small cases, which stated in the angles formed by the union of the leaves the contracted stem; those seated in the axilla of the or inferior leaves are divided into three cavities, containalant fifty spherical bodies (granules); the cases in the of the internal or superior leaves are divided by numerous e partitions into many cavities, all of which are filled an impalpably fine powder, in the early stages of its development white, but subsequently becoming black. The species of Isoctes grow at the bottoms of ponds and lakes, dare said to afford excellent food for fish. They are called Quillworts from the rush or quill-like appearance of the haves, cuyday out lo zobingem od 1. locistis, Quillwort, has subulate roundish-quadrangular leaves with four longitudinal jointed tubes. The rhizoma f this plant is a blunt tuber; the leaves are slender, broad and flat at the base, but elsewhere between cylindrical and quadrangular. It is found in Great Britain, at the bottom of lakes and ponds in hilly districts. The structure of the fructification of this plant, and other species of the genus, is only imperfectly understood. It is on this account refered to Marsilleaceae by some authors, and made to form an independent order by others. Lindley refers it to Lycopodiacea, and observes, I follow De Candolle and Brongniart, in referring it here. Delile has published an account of the germination of Isoetes setacea, from which it appears that its sporules sprout upwards and downwards, forming an intermediate solid body, which ultimately becomes the stem or cormus, but it is not stated whether the points from which the ascending and descending axes take their rise are uniform; as no analogy in structure is discoverable between these sporules and seeds, it is probable that they are not. Delile points out the great affinity that exists between Isoetes and Lycopodium, particularly in the relative position of the two kinds of reproductive matter. In Lycopodium,' he says, 'the pulverulent thecæ occupy the upper ends of the shoots and the granular thecæ the lower parts; while in Isoetes the former are found in the centre and the latter at the circumference. If this comparison is good, it will afford some evidence of the identity of nature of those thecæ, and that the pulverulent ones are at least not anthers, as has been supposed; for in Isoetes the pulverulent inner thecæ have the same organization, even to the presence of what has been called their stigma, as the outer granular ones so that if Isoetes has sexes, it will offer the singular fact of its anther having a stigma.' (Babington, Manual of British Botany; Newman, History of British Ferns; Lindley, Natural System; Burnett, Outlines of Botany) ISO TELUS, a genus of fossil Crustacea (Trilobites) from the Silurian strata, especially of North America (Green). ISSUE PEAS are round bodies employed for the purpose of maintaining irritation in a wound of the skin which is called an issue. [Issue, P. C.] It is a matter of indifference of what substance the peas are composed, so long as they do not introduce poisonous matters into the wound. The seed of the common garden pea is frequently used. It is however more common to use the young unripe fruits of the common orange (Citrus aurantium). The fruits are dried and afterwards turned in a lathe before they are used as issue peas. The unripe oranges, dried, are sold under the name of orangettes or Curaçoa oranges. The rootstock of the Iris Florentina is also formed into peas and used for keeping up the discharge from issues. (Lindley, Flora Medica; Christison, Dispensatory.) IULUS, a genus established by Linnæus for such Insecta Myriapoda as now form the order Chilognatha (xeiλos, yválos), the first division of Myriapoda in the arrangements of Leach and Latreille. The Chilognatha have crustaceous and usually cylindrical bodies, formed of numerous unequal segments, very short feet, each terminating in a single hook; a vertical rounded head, furnished with two mandibles, which are either thick and robust or united with the labium and elongated. They have no palpi. The antennæ are two, very short, either slightly thickened towards their extremities, or filiform throughout, and composed usually of seven, more rarely (as in the genus Sphæropaeus) of six joints. Their eyes are smooth and vary greatly in number. These animals move slowly and with a gliding motion. When disturbed, they roll themselves up spirally, or into a ball. They feed on decomposing animal and vegetable matter. The position assigned to the Chilognatha, at the head of the Myriapoda, by Latreille and others, has recently been disputed by Professor Brandt and by Mr. Newport. The following remarks on this subject by the latter naturalist, of all living zoologists the most competent to decide in questions affecting this difficult class, are taken from his catalogue of Chilognatha in the British Museum, published in the Annals of Natural History for April, 1844, and afford in a brief compass much information respecting these curious animals. 'The Chilognatha have usually been regarded by naturalists as the first order of Myriapoda, partly in consequence of the more compact form of the head, and its similarity to that of the larva state of hexapod insects, and partly from the general form of their bodies being similar to that of the larvae. This was the view taken of these animals by Latreille, Leach, Gervais, and some others, and very recently by Lucas. But a different and, as I believe, more correct view and arran ment have been followed by Professor Brandt, who regards the Chilopoda as the first, and the Chilognatha as the second division of the class. Although I cannot entirely agree with Brandt in his division of the Chilognatha into masticating and sucking species, because, as Lucas has recently remarked, there are species even among the Chilopoda which have the external organs of nutrition fitted only for taking liquid food, as in the little Scolopendrella, I fully agree with him in the superiority of the Chilopoda, as an order, over the Chilognatha, notwithstanding the less compact structure of the head in the former. The general characters of the Chilopoda certainly point them out as the most perfect animals of the osculant class of Articulata. The more compact frame of body, the reduced number of the organs of locomotion, the greater activity, and the predaceous habits of the higher species, approximate the Chilopoda to the predaceous insects on the one hand, and to the Arachnida on the other. The form of the head, in the two divisions of Myriapoda, seems to have reference chiefly to the particular habits of the species. Thus, in those which seize their prey and subsist like the Arachnidans on living objects, those segments which in reality compose the whole head are not all anchylosed together, but are in part freely moveable on each other, and thus allow of a more prehensile function to the large forcipated foot-jaws, the true mandibles of the Articulata. Some naturalists have believed that these foot-jaws in the Chilopoda are not the true analogues of insects and of Chilognatha; but I am satisfied, by recent examinations, that this is truly the case. In the Chilognatha the foot-jaws have the form of true mandibles, because the habits of the species require that compact form of the organ which alone can be subservient, not to the seizing and piercing of living prey, but to the grinding or comminuting of more or less solid vegetable matter, on which most of the genera of Chilognatha entirely subsist. In all other respects, both in their internal as well as their external anatomy, and in their physiology and mode of growth, the Chilognatha are decidedly inferior to the Chilopoda. They seem to conduct us down to the Annelida from the vegetablefeeding crustacea, as the Chilopoda do from the Arachnidans to the same class.' The Chilognathous Myriapoda are found in all parts of the world, certain genera, however, affecting certain geographical divisions. Thus the species of Glomeris are European; those of Spirastreptus and Sphæropaus African and Eastern. The genus Iulus, in its most limited sense, includes European, Asiatic, and North American species. Iulus terrestris is a familiar British example. A synopsis of the genera of Chilognatha will be found in the third part of the nineteenth volume of the Linnæan Transactions,' appended to a valuable memoir on the Myriapoda by Mr. Newport. Professor Brandt's papers on these animals are published in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg.' and of this association he appears to have been the prin person. During fifteen years (from 1789 to 1804) Mr. Ivore employed daily in operations apparently very uncongeal the taste of a man of science; but it may be presumed th. • his leisure hours were devoted to the prosecution of s researches. It must have been at this time that, thoug siding in a retired district, he diligently studied the w of the English mathematicians, together with those of t illustrious foreigners whose works were in the public l of Scotland; also that he obtained access to, and mal self thoroughly acquainted with, the later productions f continental mathematicians. It is scarcely to be expected that a factory carried o the superintendence of a man the greater part of whee was probably spent in researches which require nearly, ti abstraction of the mind from the ordinary concerns should have succeeded; accordingly we find that in 14 company ceased to exist; and Mr. Ivory, who then oltot appointment to a professorship of mathematics in the Military College, quitted Scotland, and went to n Marlow, in Buckinghamshire, where that institution ha few years previously, been formed. On the renov college to its present site (Sandhurst in Berkshire), M:. in accompanied it to the latter place, where he remaine retirement from public service. He fulfilled the duties of professorship to the great satisfaction of the goverage: attention to the students who were placed under hive » 44 remitting; and it should be remarked that, however it might have been to a man of high attainments in communicate the elements of knowledge to young Mr. Ivory always evinced the utmost readiness to a the most appropriate and familiar illustrations, in s the path of science to his pupils. An edition of F Elements,' which is known to have been his work, h his name does not appear on the title-page, was prepend him for the use of the students in the college; and the in which he has treated the book on proportion, and which relate to solids, must have greatly diminished e culties which the generality of learners experience in ac a knowledge of those parts of elementary mathematics In the beginning of the year 1819 Mr. Ivory, fech health decline under the great exertions which he a carrying on his scientific researches and performing his a as a professor, those duties leaving him but short in za leisure, was induced to resign his professorship and re private life. In consequence of his great merit the granted to him the pension due to the full period wart the regulations, the civil officers of the institution are r to serve previously to obtaining such pension; and period he had not completed. After his retirement Sandhurst, Mr. Ivory devoted himself wholly to s researches, and the results of his labours have been IVORY, JAMES, a distinguished British mathematician, chiefly in the volumes of the Philosophical Transc was born at Dundee, in 1765, and received the rudiments of In 1831, in consideration of the great talent displayed a education in the public schools of that town. At fourteen investigations, he was by Lord Brougham, to whom te years of age he was sent to the university of St. Andrew's; been known in early life, recommended to the king W his father, who was a watchmaker, intending that he should IV.), who, with the Hanoverian Guelphic Order of K become a clergyman of the church of Scotland. In that uni-hood, gave him an annual pension of 3007., which he e versity the young man remained six years, during four of which he was occupied with the study of mathematics, languages, and philosophy; but the first of these subjects, from a natural inclination to that branch of science, particularly engaged his attention: he was encouraged and ably assisted in his favourite pursuit by the Rev. John West, one of the instructors at the university; and his great progress, which is said to have excited considerable notice, gave already indications of the eminence which, as a mathematician, he was afterwards to attain. The two following years were passed in the study of theology; and Mr. Ivory then removed, in company with Mr. (afterwards Sir John) Leslie, who had been his fellow-student at St. Andrew's, to the university of Edinburgh, where he spent one year in completing the course of study required as his qualification for admission to the office of minister in the Scottish church. It is not known what circumstances prevented Mr. Ivory from carrying out the intentions of his father in this respect; but, on quitting the university, in 1786, he accepted an appointment as an assistant teacher in an academy then recently established in Dundee, and he continued to fulfil the duties of that post during three years. At the end of that time he engaged with some other persons in the establishment, at Douglastown in Forfarshire, of a factory for spinning flax; 6 during the rest of his life; and, in 1839, the Univer St. Andrew's conferred on him the degree of doctor in He lived in great privacy in or near London till the tim his death, which happened September 21st, 1842, in! seventy-seventh year of his age. Mr. Ivory's earliest writings were three Memoirs wh communicated in the years 1796, 1799, and 1802 tot Royal Society of Edinburgh: the first of these was t A New Series for the Rectification of the Ellipse, second, A new Method of resolving Cubic Equations; the third, A New and Universal Solution of Kepler's blem;' all of them evincing great analytical skill, as we originality of thought. He contributed fifteen paper% Transactions of the Royal Society of London,' nearly them relating to physical astronomy, and every one con mathematical investigations of the most refined nature. 1 first, which is entitled On the Attractions of Homogen e Ellipsoids,' is in the volume for 1809, and contains inv tions of the attractions of such ellipsoids on points st within them and on their exterior: the former case pre few difficulties; but the process used by Laplace for the tion of the other was very complex, and Mr. Ivory h merit of discovering one which is remarkable for its simp A given point being on the exterior of an ellipsoid, heir. d another ellipsoid having the same centre and the same i as the first to pass through the point; then taking, on surface of the interior ellipsoid, a point so situated that the elinates of the two points are in the ratio of the semiaxes which they are parallel, he showed that the attraction in the petion of each axis which one of the two bodies exercises in a point on the surface of the other, is to the attraction A letter body on the corresponding point at the surface of st, as the product of the two other axes of the first dis to the product of the two other axes of the second. investigation of this case has since been given by Posson. gations relating to sound and heat. Several valuable commanications from his pen are contained in Maseres's Scriptores Logarithmici;' in Leybourn's Mathematical Repository;" and in the Supplement to the sixth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica.' In estimating the merits of Mr. Ivory as a mathematician, it must be borne in mind that his researches were conducted by a most refined analysis at the time when even the notation of the differential calculus was not familiar to the English mathematicians; and that, when he wrote the papers relating to the attraction of spheroids, the volume of the Mécanique Céleste,' in which that subject is treated, had probably not been read by any person in this country except himself. In 1815 Mr. Ivory was elected a fellow of the Royal So IVY. [HEDERA, P. C.] is the volumes for 1812 and 1822 there are three papers on Atractions of Spheroids, in which Mr. Ivory substituted a analytical process for the indirect method of Laplace:ciety of London: he was also an honorary fellow of the Royal gers contain also some observations on the method em- Society of Edinburgh; an honorary member of the Royal by that great geometer in computing the attractions of Irish Academy, and of the Cambridge Philosophical Society; reds of any form differing but little from spheres. The a corresponding member of the Institute of France, of the A skill shown by Mr. Ivory in these papers was frankly Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and of the Royal Sosired by Laplace himself in a conversation which, ciety of Göttingen. He received, in 1814, the Copley 12 he had with Sir Humphry Davy. medal for his mathematical communications to the Royal Transactions for 1814 contain an investigation, by Society in 1826 one of the royal medals was awarded to him resting to the orbits of comets, on the supposition that for his paper on Astronomical Refractions, published in 1823; its are parabolical: the paper is entitled A New and in 1839 he received another royal medal for his Theory of deducing a first Approximation to the Orbit of a of Astronomical Refractions, which was published in 1838. three Geocentric Observations.' And the vo- (From the Marquis of Northampton's Address to the Royal 1923 and 1838 contain his investigations relating Society, November 17, 1842.) Jomical Refractions: in the first of these the temof the air is supposed to decrease uniformly with a Brease of height; and in the other the expressions krol general for all laws of temperature. The volumes *24, 1831, 1834, and 1839 contain, each, a paper on the fun of fluid bodies; and in the volume for 1838 Mr. demonstrated that a homogeneous ellipsoid with three lates may be in equilibrio when revolving about one of es; he also examined in detail the limitations of the tons of the axes. The subject of planetary perturbatreated by him in two papers which are contained in wes for 1832 and 1833; in the first he has simplified eory of the variations of the elements, and in the other ven some facilities for developing the excentricities inations. He has given in the Transactions' only which is purely mathematical, and this is contained me for 1831: it is entitled, On the Theory of Transcendants.' isory contributed several papers to the Philosophical in the number of that work for August, 182 is d of finding the latitude of a ship by two observathe sun's altitude, with the time elapsed between ; and in the volumes for 1825 and 1827 are his investi IZALCO is the name of a village in the State of San Salvador in Central America, and remarkable for a volcano situated about three miles from the village, and between eight and nine from the town of Zonsonate. This volcano is of recent origin. It is stated that it was formed about sixty years ago, and it is to be regretted that no particular account has hitherto been published of such a remarkable event. It broke out on the top of a hill of moderate elevation, which however since that event has been increased in size by the addition of lava, scoria, ashes, and other volcanic matter, and at present it may be called a considerable mountain. It is one of the few volcanos which are in uninterrupted activity, like the Stromboli of the Lipari Islands. The eruptions are almost continual, and whenever they slacken the country in its vicinity is subject to almost continual earthquakes. Sometimes the activity of the volcano is increased, and then large quantities of lava inundate the country at its base, the greater part of which has thus been changed into a stony waste. (Thompson, Visit to Guatimala; Haefkens, Central Amerika; Montgomery, Narrative of a Journey to Guatimala.) JACARANDA of commerce is said by Prince Maximilian to be the timber of a Brazilian Mimosa. (Burnett, Outlines of Botany.) JACKSON, JOHN, R.A., was born in 1778 at Lastingham, in Yorkshire, where his father carried on the business of a tailor, and he was himself bred to the same business. He however hated his occupation; he had seen the collection of Lord Mulgrave, and the pictures at Castle Howard, and he had a strong inclination to become a painter. An attempt which he made to imitate a picture by Reynolds was shown by his schoolmaster to Lord Mulgrave, who perceiving in it and others, notwithstanding their crudeness, some talent, supplied Jackson with proper materials, and encouraged him to go on. Lord Mulgrave and Sir G. Beaumont purchased the two years of Jackson's unexpired apprenticeship, and the latter in 1797 gave him an allowance of 50l. per annum, and an apartment in his house in town, to enable him to prosecute his studies at the Royal Academy. Jackson soon obtained a name for his portraits in black leadpencil and water-colours, but it took him many years to equal the successful oil-painters of that day. He first attracted notice in this department about 1806, and in 1817 when he was elected a member of the Royal Academy, his reputation was little inferior to that of Lawrence, though he was comparatively little patronized; his portraits were bold and effective, but they wanted the delicacy of the works of Lawrence: Jackson could paint five heads while Lawrence was painting one. In the summer of 1819 he visited Rome in company with Chantrey, and painted for him there a portrait of Canova. Jackson astonished the Roman painters, says Cunningham, by copying in four days the Borghese Titian of 'Sacred and Profane Love' as it is called, a picture which many Romans required two or three months to copy: Passavant says, the figure of Divine Love, in three days, which is more likely; the rest of the picture is scarcely worth copying. Jackson was elected a member of the Academy of St. Luke, at Rome. He was in all his works extraordinarily rapid and sure. A story is related, that he commenced and finished in a single summer's day, as a wager, the portraits of five gentlemen: he received 25 guineas for each of them-125 guineas in one day; probably no painter ever earned as much by his own labour before. The story is told by Passavant. Jackson died at his house in St. John's Wood on June the 1st, 1831. His best works are the portraits of Lady Dover, of Flaxman, and of himself, both painted for Lord Dover, and the portrait already mentioned of Canova. He painted in all the portraits of thirteen of his fellow Academicians, but that of Flaxman, is in all respects the best; Allan Cunningham truly observes of this picture, that there is a sombre grandeur about it which awes one;' it is certainly one of the finest portraits in the world. Jackson exhibited in all, at the Royal Academy, between the years 1804 and 1830, one hundred and forty-five pictures; he of course painted very many portraits that were not exhibited, for he was latterly constantly employed. His nominal price for a head was fifty guineas, and though he must have been making a large income, he died without leaving a provision for his family. He was twice married; his second wife, who survived him, was the daughter of his fellowacademician, Ward. (Cunningham, Lives of British Painters, &c.; Passavant, Kunstreise durch England, &c.) JACKSON, ANDREW, the late American general and president, was himself a native of the United States; although his father, of the same names, was an Irishman, the youngest of the four sons of Hugh Jackson, a linendraper near Carrickfergus; and either the linendraper himself, or one of his recent progenitors, had come over from Scotland. Andrew Jackson went over to America in 1765, taking with him a wife and two sons. With them he established himself in the Waxhaw settlement in South Carolina; and here his third and youngest son, the subject of the present notice, was born on the 15th of March, 1767. Andrew Jackson' died soon after; and his widow found herself left with a half-cleared farm, without slaves, whereupon to bring up her three sons. It is a remarkable fact that three of the Presidents of the United States have Ꭻ Andrew, her latest born, appears to have been his mo favourite; and the original destination of the future Gen= and President of the United States was to be a clergyar are not informed of what denomination. With this after having finished his school education, he was sent t Waxhaw Academy; and here he seems to have theology for some years. When the war of indepe however, made all Americans soldiers, the young s did not hold back. Andrew is recorded to have fourth. with his next eldest brother Robert, under Sumter a attack on the British garrison at Rocky Mount, on the August, 1780; at which date he would be little more thirteen. And from this time he is stated to have ta part in the campaigns as long as the war lasted. Nort altogether escape the usual dissipated habits of a military but, with the decision of character which was his most r able characteristic, he suddenly changed his course b was too late, and, collecting what remained of his means, himself, in the winter of 1784, into the hands of M'Cay, Esq., an eminent advocate and afterwards a to be instructed in the practice of the law. This ne he prosecuted with so much success that in 1787 her pointed solicitor for what was then called the Western D of North Carolina, and is now the State of Tennese circumstances of the time, however, did not suffer hi if he had been so inclined, to throw off his military chart or to let the experience he had gained in camp campaigns go to rust. Although the war with the country was over, the borders of the republican territory still infested with another most troublesome enemy original occupants of the soil; and Jackson, altho would only serve as a private, is said to have so muc tinguished himself in the contest with these natural r his race, that he was honoured among them with the or descriptive appellations, of Sharp Knife and Pa Arrow. He continued to be thus employed till the year 1756 after having first acted as one of the members of the Co tion for establishing a constitution for the state of Tennes was, under that new arrangement, elected to a sea House of Representatives. The next year he was ch Soor; but he resigned his seat after holding it for c sion. On this he was immediately appointed by the ture of Tennessee Judge of the Supreme Court in that having also been shortly before chosen a Major General state forces. But he soon resigned his judicial office settling himself on a farm, a few miles from Nashville, Cumberland river, he resided there in retirement till the ing out of the war with England in 1812. With that commences the most memorable portion of Jackson's c on his His first command was that of a body of between t three thousand volunteers, who had assembled tion, and with whom he was directed to proceed dora, Mississippi for the defence of the lower country. This in November, 1812. The next year he greatly disting himself by a campaign against the Creek tribes. An of it may be found in a message from the President (M to Congress, dated 7th December, 1813, in which it is that the best hopes of a satisfactory issue of the contest already warranted by the complete success of a well-pla enterprise against the Indians, executed by a detachm the volunteer militia of Tennessee under the comm General Coffee; and by a still more important victory a larger body of them, gained under the immediate co of Major General Jackson, an officer equally distinguis for his patriotism and his military talents. The Creeks repeatedly afterwards defeated by Jackson. The war terminated in August, 1814, by a treaty, by which agreed to lay down their arms. (Message of Presi Madison, dated 20th September, 1814.). service of the United States; and, among other operations, In 1814 Jackson was appointed a Major General in succeeded in taking Pensacola on the 7th of Novemb raised himself to the highest point of reputation and popula among his countrymen by the famous repulse of the Briti of Janust been descendants of Scottish colonists of the North of Ireland; Moarce, Jackson, 1816. The next military command which he held, was that and the present President, Polk. (1846.) war against the Seminole Indians of Florida in 1818, for details of which the reader may be referred to President roe's Message to Congress of the 16th of November in = year, and to the Report of the Committee of Senate on Seminole war, dated 24th February, 1819. Jackson's ceedings in this war, from first to last, were extremely tar and high-handed; the force at the head of which he himself was raised and officered not only without but Srect opposition to the orders of the general government; carrying on his operations against the Indians, he did not Je to seize, one after another, several forts and ports beng to Spain, with which country the United States were race, and to put down the Spanish authorities by the power sword-conduct of which his government marked its proval in the most emphatic manner, by the immediate ration of the places thus unwarrantably seized; but his extraordinary act was the execution of the two EnglishArbuthnot and Ambrister. Alexander Arbuthnot was in the Spanish Fort of St. Mark's, along with two chiefs, and Robert C. Ambrister, a few days after, on an excursion which the force made from that post atroy a neighbouring Indian village. The two Indian were hanged at once, and without trial; the justificaaged being that by their own usual practice in like cases, the general manner in which they carried on war, the trues were to be considered as having put themselves the pale of the ordinary law of nations. Arbuthnot Abrister were both, after a few days' confinement, tried Mark's by court martial; when Arbuthnot was senito suffer death, and Ambrister to be whipped and r confined; but General Jackson annulled the latter ce, and Arbuthnot was hung and Ambrister shot. is no doubt that these persons were acting in concert the Indians; and, that being the case, it would perhaps hcult to show that they were entitled to other treatthan those with whom they had associated themselves, ven to take the lives of Indian prisoners of war was an me proceeding, and one of very doubtful propriety; the ye upon which the two Englishmen were tried was only vague one of inciting the Indians to war; in circumstances it was certainly a startling exercise of ry power for a general, under the most popular of Seruments, to set aside the sentence of a court martial, uce in the case of Ambrister. Besides, the principle 3 General Jackson took his stand was even less tenable the one we have just stated; he himself vindicated what ad done, on the ground that Arbuthnot and Ambrister, sting in war against the United States while they were with Great Britain, became outlaws and pirates; resting their liability to suffer death, when taken rners of war, not on the ground of their having united v fates with savages, but on that of their having been the s of a power with which the United States were at ke; a principle altogether unknown to the law of nations. wever, although a stout fight was made in Congress by the we party, Jackson's friends, supported by the feeling out doors, where his military reputation and his ultra-democraressions bore down everything, carried a succession of in his exculpation by large majorities. General Jackson afterwards acted as commissioner on the #of the United States in the negociation with Spain for transference of Florida and after the arrangement of the ay to that effect, he was, in 1821, appointed the first War of the province. He held this post for a year, and ten again elected a member of the Senate for the State Marssee. ، When the election of a new president came on at the end 4. General Jackson was a candidate along with Mr. . Mr. Clay, and Mr. Crawford; and on the first vote ad a large majority over the nearest of his competitors: tenabers being for Jackson 101, Adams 82, Crawford 41, 37. No candidate, however, having the majority red by the Constitution, the election devolved upon the of Representatives; and Adams and Clay having their strength, the former obtained the votes of thirteen against seven who voted for Jackson and four who red for Crawford, and became president. Jackson, how, was triumphantly elected in 1828, and again in 1832; | that he was at the head of the government of his native try for the eight years from 1829 to 1837. His presiy was distinguished by the rapid growth and extension of cratic tendencies of all kinds: and, at the same time, of Both the spirit of territorial extension, with its near conseP. C. S., No. 100. | quences, conquest and war, and of the influence of the southern states and the slaveholding interest; but the subject in regard to which the president personally came forward in the most conspicuous manner was in the affair of the United States Bank. This bank, the renewal of the charter of which was the ostensible matter in dispute, was a powerful instrument in the hands of the general government; and hence the renewal of its charter, though supported by both Houses of Congress, was resisted, and successfully, both by the popular voice and by the president whom that voice had placed in office, and who had been one of the most ardent and resolute of the democratic leaders throughout his life. General Jackson survived his presidency about eight years, and died at his seat called the Hermitage, near Nashville, in Tennessee, on Sunday the 8th of June, 1845. He was married, but had no issue. (Biographical Notice in (New York) Weekly Herald, of 21st of June, 1845; Funeral Oration delivered by Mr. Bancroft at Washington; Histories of the Time.) JACQUARD, JOSEPH-MARIE, was born at Lyon, on the 7th of July, 1752, of humble parents, both of whom were employed in operations connected with weaving. He is said to have been left to teach himself even to read and write; but at a very early age he displayed a taste for mechanics, by constructing neat models of buildings, furniture, &c. for amusement. At the age of twelve his father placed him with a bookbinder for a time, and he was subsequently engaged in type-founding and the manufacture of cutlery, in both of which occupations he gave evidence of talent. Owing to the death of his mother, young Jacquard returned to the house and occupation of his father, who also died some years after, leaving him a small property, which he employed in the attempt to establish a business in the weaving of figured fabrics. The undertaking failed, and he was compelled to sell his looms in order to pay his debts. He subsequently married, and hoped to receive a portion with his wife which might assist him out of his pecuniary difficulties; but this expectation proved delusive, and he was compelled to sell his paternal residence. His wife, to whom he is said to have been tenderly attached, is described as a model of patience, kindness, and activity; while he appears, without fortune, ambition, or foresight, to have occupied himself with ingenious schemes for improvements in weaving, cutlery, and typefounding, which produced nothing for the support of his family. Necessity at length compelled him to enter the service of a lime-maker in Bresse, while his wife remained at Lyon to attend to a small straw-hat business. In 1792 he ardently embraced the revolutionary cause, and in the following year he returned to Lyon, and assisted in the memorable defence of that place against the army of the Convention; his only son, then a youth of fifteen, fought by his side. Being denounced after the reduction of Lyon, they were both compelled to fly, and they then joined the army of the Rhine. His son was killed in battle, and upon this Jacquard returned to Lyon, where he found his wife, whom he had been unable to inform of his flight, earning her bread by plaiting straw, in which humble occupation he was compelled by poverty to assist. Lyon at length began to rise from its ruins, and its artisans returned from Switzerland, Germany, and England, where they had taken refuge. Under these circumstances, Jacquard applied himself with renewed energy to the perfection of the beautiful apparatus for figured weaving which bears his name, and which is described under WEAVING, P. C., pp. 178, 179. He had conceived the idea of such an apparatus as early as 1790, and he now succeeded, though but imperfectly, in accomplishing his end. His machine was presented, in September, 1801, to the rational exposition of the products of industry, the jury of which awarded him a bronze medal for its invention. In the same year he obtained a patent, or brevet d'invention,' for a term of ten years. He set up a loom on his new principle at Lyon, which was visited by Carnot and several other of the statesmen who were assembled at that city in 1802 to arrange the affairs of the Cisalpine republic. About this time the attention of Jacquard appears to have been directed, by the accidental perusal of a paragraph from an English newspaper, stating that a reward was offered by a society in this country for the invention of such an apparatus, to the construction of a machine for weaving nets for fishing and maritime purposes. From the account given by Dr. Bowring, who had conversed on the subject with Jacquard himself, before a Select Committee of the House of Commons on the silk trade, in 1832, and which is made the subject of VOL. II.-Q |