is a discontinuous function, as follows:-From x=-» '; xa exclusive, it is nothing: when xa, it is pa: x=a to x=b both exclusive, it is pr; when x=b, it is ! and from ab to x it is nothing. Thirdly, the following methods of expanding a function a series of sines and cosines has been extensively used by L grange, Poisson, and Fourier. We give it in the most r ral form after the manner of Poisson. Let r(1+m) г(1+n) [0, 1] = log (1-v) log v r(1+m+n) (a pos.) x tan z dr [0, ∞] a2+x* (a pos.) [0, ∞] = = (a pos.) 2 pvdv [0, 1], Am= COS T prdr 0,7 dx [0, ∞ ] S -az sin br.3 according as a is less or greater than unity. Among the means of producing or using definite integrals which are comprehensive enough to deserve the name of methods, there are four which particularly deserve the attention of elementary writers. The first is Laplace's mode of finding the approximate value of a definite integral in which large constant exponents occur. Let or be a function of x, such as " or " (1−x)”, &c., in which n, m, &c. are considerable exponents. Let this function vanish when a and b, and, continuing positive and finite throughout the interval, let it come to its maximum Y, when x = X. Let e, mean the value of the second differential coefficient of log da, when x = X, and assume pr=Y-2. Then r=B1 sın+B2 sin is true from 0 to xl, both exclusive, if T+.... is true for all values of a from x=0 to x=l, both exclasi l when x=1) if (becoming COS กระห instead of [0, 7] and the equation becomes true for all valu But write 27 instead of 1, in the limits only, or write [0. of a from 0 to 27, both inclusive. Fourthly, we shall give two cases of the method dedu by Cauchy, as specimens: the complete method itself some difficulties which are not yet overcome. First, let or be such a function of x that (+y vanishes when - or +, whatever y may be, the form a+b-1 (a being either positive or negative, a when y equals, whatever may be. For every root! being positive, but both finite) which makes our infinit let (-a-b1)pr be finite; calculate the value of the last product for cach root. For every real root g, of (r=0 not being one) calculate half the value of (-a) da Let the sum of all these values and half values be P. Then fpxdx[-∞, +∞]=2π/-1. P. Secondly, let pa be such a function that p(x+y Secondly, when the limiting values of x are X+, being vanishes when + or - independently of y, and wh y=+ or - independently of x. Take the imagina Spxdx[-∞, +∞]=-√/−1。(P−Q). Secondly, Fourier's theorem, as it is usually called, by which a discontinuous function can be expressed. theorem is as follows, anies the use of divergent series, which is the most import- | parts of London the average time that a body is kept is about nt mathematical question now under discussion. If we were a week, which sometimes arises from inability to raise money o judge of the future by the past, we should prophesy that for the funeral expenses, as well as other causes; and where vergent series would one day take their undisputed place there is only a single apartment, the dead and the living ocong well understood objects of analysis, as negative quan-cupy it together. The injurious consequences to health from and their logarithms, imaginary quantities and their the presence of a dead body sometimes in a state of rapid ponentials, infinitely small quantities with their different decomposition, in a small ill-ventilated apartment, and parders, discontinuous solutions of differential equations, &c. ticularly when death has been the consequence of malignant Lave successively done, each under a fire of objections which disease, cannot be disputed; and the effect on the living as well served the progress of science, by the defensive is demoralizing. The expense of funerals is another head ches which it has rendered necessary. It is fortunate which is examined in this Report, where it is well remarked alysis that so many of those who find difficulties propose that the expense of interments, though it falls with the e entire rejection of the symbols or methods in which the greatest severity on the poorest classes, acts as a most severe alties exist: the proposition excites those who are against infliction on the middle classes of society' (p. 46). The rejection to efforts which they perhaps would not make, cost of interment in London varies from 41. for a labourer to they had only to meet the doubts of allies, instead of the 10007. for a gentleman: for persons of the condition of a marks of opponents. That the symbolic expressions of which gentleman it is stated that 150l. would be a low average. are speaking, will never vanish out of remembrance, we But these charges do not include anything but the underay confidently predict: of all the points of difficulty of taker's bill. The account of the details of an expensive teh we have spoken, it may be said, in the words of funeral, which is strictly the heraldic array of a baronial Horace funeral, the two men who stand at the doors being supposed to be the two porters of the castle, with their staves in black,' &c., is ludicrous enough; but the disposition to laugh is checked by considering the pecuniary embarrassment which this absurd display often entails on the survivors. Many persons incur a heavy debt by the expenses of interment. It is not unusual for poor people to liquidate such debt by instalments paid weekly, or at other short periods. Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret ;' day will come, and will demand explanation until they get They will conquer by numbers, as Fontenelle said the of infinity had done. And it is to be hoped and extes, that no difficulty will be completely resolved, without e appearance of a successor, to excite new efforts, and be stulating cause of further progress. We should be sorry think we had arrived at the last impossibilities of pure thematics.' The subject of interment, like many others relating to the economy of society, may at first sight not seem to require any INTERDICT, in the law of Scotland, supplies the place particular attention on the part of the state. It may be said, an injunction from a court of equity in England. It is a let every man bury his dead as he best can, and as he chooses. ibitory order, forbidding some act from being done, and With respect to the rich, the expense is an absurd waste of is obtained on the application of the party who would be money, and the example is bad; with respect to the midred by the performance of the act. It may be issued by dling classes, it is a heavy burden; but to the poor, interment Court of Session, or by the Sheriff's Court. Interdicts of their dead is often almost an impossibility. To diminish te Court of Session are frequently obtained for preventing these expenses, to secure the decency of interment amongst avrior courts, or courts of limited operation, such as the all classes, and particularly among the poor, and to prevent astical courts, from exceeding their jurisdiction. To the contamination of the living by the dead, are objects well end the form was frequently adopted in the late dispute in worthy of the attention of a legislator. The information Charch of Scotland, which ended in a secession. [FREE collected in the report above alluded to lays bare a revolting , P.C.S.] Interdict is applied for by what is called picture of moral and physical facts; but it is truly said, 'GeNote of Suspension and Interdict' presented to the Lord neral conclusions can only be distinctly made out from the Omary on the Bills. In pressing matters, interim inter- various classes of particular facts, and the object being the awarded before the parties are heard, but in the gene- suggestion of remedies and preventions, it were obviously as ese intimation is given to the other party, who gives in unbecoming to yield to disgusts or to evade the enumeration If there are means by which the applicant's in- and calm consideration of these facts, as it would be in the s can be kept safe, as by the finding security, or other-physician or surgeon, in the performance of his duty with the , the interdict will not be granted, but the vote will be like object, to shrink from the investigation of the most offened to try the question,' and the matter will proceed as an sive manifestations of disease.' wary litigation. The Report makes a proximate estimate of the total exINTERMENT. [INTERMENT, P. C.] Of late years the pense of funerals in London, which, according to the estict of interment has attracted much attention in England, mate, amounts to 626,6047. per annum; and a like estimate & great amount of information has been collected. Though of the expense of all the funerals in England and Wales in ons are not unanimous, the evidence, the further it is exa- one year is 4,870,4931. This sum, enormous as it is, may be ad, appears to prove that emanations from crowded burial- considered an under estimate. The cost of the funerals of ads and from the vaults of churches do injuriously affect persons of rank and title varies from 15007, to 10007. or 8007. "bealth of persons who live near them; and that these or less, as it is a town or country funeral. The expenses of mations when sufficiently concentrated may produce the funerals of gentry of the better condition vary from 2007. ly death. The general conclusion that all interments to 4007., and are stated to be seldom so low as 150l.' The hairches or in towns are essentially of an injurious and average cost of funerals of persons of every rank above paugerous tendency' (Report on the Practice of Interment pers in the metropolis may be taken at 147. 168. 9d. head. Turns), is at least made a strong probability, and strong But owing to circumstances, fully explained in the Report, zh, coupled with other reasons, to justify the legislature even this lavish expenditure does not secure the proper and ridding such interments, and placing all burying-grounds solemn discharge of the funeral ceremony, which, in crowded such regulations as may prevent the effluvia from the and busy districts seems to be totally impracticable. It is al from becoming detrimental to the health of the living. fully shown that the expenses of funerals may be greatly ree Report to which reference has been made contains, induced, and the due performance of the religious ceremonies on to the evidence on the injurious effects of crowded al-places, much valuable information on the injury to ath caused, particularly among the poor, by the delay in rents. The following remark will show the nature and t of this evil: In a large proportion of cases in the polis and in some of the manufacturing districts, one The Report concludes (p. 197) with a summary of the serves for one family of the labouring classes: it is evils which require remedies; and there is not one of the evils the bed-room, their kitchen, their wash-house, their sitting- which has not been proved to exist. There may be differwa, their dining-room; and when they do not follow any ence of opinion as to the degree in which the evils exist; but -door occupation, it is frequently their work-room and their none as to the existence itself. The remedies that are sugIn this one room they are born, and live, and sleep, gested for these evils appear to have been well considered, ad die amidst the other inmates.' Among the poor in some though, when an evil is ascertained to exist, people are no always agreed as to the best remedy. One of the proposed These are the words of Mr. A. F. Vogel, of Leipsic, who has recently pub-remedies, which involves many important considerates. ed in this country a tract on the resolution of all kinds of equations, printed would probably meet with some opposition, is that z Leipen, in his own English. per may be secured by other arrangements. The establishment of cemeteries by Joint Stock Companies has done something by diminishing the amount of interments in crowded places, but the expenses of interment have perhaps not been at all diminished by them. cemeteries of a suitable description ought to be provided and maintained (as to the material arrangements) under the direction of officers duly qualified for the care of the public health. Another is, that for the abatement of oppressive charges for funeral materials, decorations, and services, provision should be made (in conformity to successful examples abroad) by the officers having charge of the national cemeteries, for the supply of the requisite materials and services, securing to all classes, but especially to the poor, the means of respectable interment, at reduced and moderate prices, suitable to the state of the deceased and the condition of the survivors.' The numerous matters contained in the Report can only be indicated here. It should be consulted by all who take an interest in the well-being of society, as a most valuable contribution to the statistics of civilized life. (A Supplementary Report on the Results of a Special Inquiry as to the Practice of Interment in Towns, made at the request of her Majesty's principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, by Edwin Chadwick, Esq. Barrister-atLaw. London, 1843.) publicists, who have derived from general principle o morality and justice a series of minute abstract rules fre conduct of nations towards each other, and subsidiarily fr conduct of their subjects in relation to international quer It has been usual to call this department the Law of Ne as well as the Law of Nations, on the supposition though it has not the support of the authority of any leg ture, it is founded on the universal principles of nat justice. It is clear that thus in its large features, as a rule for conduct of independent communities towards each other. Law of Nations wants one essential feature of that wh entitled to the term law-a binding authority. Nation the most powerful are not without checks in the fer raising hostile combinations and otherwise; but there ca no uniformity in these checks; and in general when the terest is of overwhelming importance, and the nation power" it takes its own way. The importance of the questions wh may be involved in the Law of Nations thus materially f the question how far it is uniformly obeyed. In a s INTERNATIONAL LAW. This term was originally minor questions-such as the safety of the persons of an applied by Bentham to what was previously called the law sadors, and their exemption from responsibility to the lav of nations,' and it has been generally received as a more apt the country to which they are accredited, and in other man " designation than that which it superseded. When the term of personal etiquette, a set of uniform rules has been s 'law of nations' was in use, that of law of peace and war' blished by the practice of all the civilized world, which a was sometimes employed as a synonyme, and as indicative of rarely infringed. But in the more important questions, the boundaries of the subject. It was thus in its proper garding what is a justifiable ground for declaring war sense restricted to the disputes which governments might territory a nation is entitled to the sovereignty of? what have with each other, and did not in general apply to ques- legitimate method of conducting a war once commenced tions between subjects of different states, arising out of the the rules of the publicists are often precise enough; b position of the states with regard to each other, or out of the practice of nations has been far from regular, and has be divergences in the internal laws of the separate states. But every reader of history knows, influenced by the relat under the more expressive designation, International Law, strength of the disputing parties more than by the jus the whole of these subjects, intimately connected with each their cause. The later writers on this subject have from other as they will be found to be, can be comprehended and circumstance directed their attention more to the means examined, and thus several arbitrary distinctions and exclu- which any system of international law can be enforced, sions are saved. To show how these subjects are interwoven, to minute and abstract statements of what may be theor the following instances may be taken:-A port is put in a justice, but has little chance of being enforced. They state of blockade; a vessel of war of a neutral power breaks found several circumstances which have an influence in { the blockade: this is distinctly a question between nations, to preservation of international justice, though of cours be provided for by the law of peace and war, in as far as sanctions which can give it the uniformity and consiste there are any consuetudinary rules on the subject, and the internal laws. parties will submit to them. But suppose a merchant vessel The combinations for the preservation of what is belonging to a subject of a neutral power attempts an infringe the Balance of Power [BALANCE OF POWER, P. C ment of the blockade, and is seized-here there is no question among the most useful restrictions of ambition. All pr between nations in the first place. The matter is adjudicated of history furnish illustrations of this principle. Hame fo on in the country which has made the seizure, as absolutely that the Peloponnesian war was carried on for the preser and unconditionally as if it were a question of internal smug- of the balance of power against Athens. The late war esh gling; and it will depend on the extent to which just rules a noted illustration of combination to prevent univers guide the judicature of that country, and not on any question quest on the part of the French. The safety of small settled between contending powers, whether any respect will from being absorbed by their larger neighbours, is in be paid to what the party can plead in his own favour, on the jealousy which these neighbours feel of each other's ground of the comity of nations, or otherwise. But there is a disement. Thus the jealousy of rulers is one barrier to na third class of cases most intimately linked with these latter, injustice. Another is public opinion; sometimes that of but which are completely independent of any treaties, declara-nation whose rulers would be prepared to commit injustice tions of war, or other acts by nations towards each other. sometimes that of other nations. Of course it can only ke They arise entirely out of the internal laws of the respective a very limited extent that the public feeling of a dep nations of the world, in as far as they differ from each other. government can check the grasping spirit of its rulers. The conflict of laws' is a term very generally applied to the public feeling of the constitutional and democratic this branch of international law, and the circumstances in which is the great check on the injustice that might be perpetra it comes into operation are when the judicial settlement of the by a nation when it becomes so powerful as Great Britan question takes place in one country, but some of the circumstances of which cognizance had to be taken have occurred in some other country where the law applicable to the matter is different. One of the most common illustrations of this subject is,—a judicial inquiry in England whether a marriage has taken place in Scotland according to the law of that country; or an inquiry in Scotland whether a marriage has taken place according to the law of England; in either of which cases there will generally be the further and nicer question, Which country's law ought to prevail as the criterion? Thus the three leading departments of international law The seizure of the Danish fleet by the English has b subject of warm censure in this country. Necessitythe plea that Napoleon would have used the fleet to ins our own shores has not been accepted in palliation of act; and the manner in which it has been canvassed is likely to prevent any British government from adoptin precedent. The partition of Poland is an instance of str injustice condemned by the public feeling of countries oth than those by which it was perpetrated; and it may be tioned whether the states which accomplished the par may not yet suffer by it. Good fame in the community nations is like respectability in private circles, a so power through external support; and the conduct of Russ country the sympathy of free nations. It need scars towards Poland has frequently diverted from the firm observed that the press, whether fugitive or permanent. most powerful organ of this public opinion, and that the of able historians, jurists, and moralists, have much int in the preservation of international justice. Among the pr cipal subjects of dispute in this department of internati daries -the sovereignty of territory and the proper cew/ law are-1 ist! aler the Oregon territory in North America; questions as very and first occupancy of barbarous countries; questo any exclusive right to frequent certain seas,--and ere is a well-known distinction between the broad and the narrow seas that lie close to particular terriquestions regarding the right of navigation in rivers ay be either between the upper and lower territories, een states on opposite banks; questions as to the right our or fishing, &c.; and questions as to the right of with particular states. A very advantageous method ting minor international disputes has been frequently urse to of late in a submission to the arbitration of a power. Pride and the spirit of not yielding to intior aggrandisement have often more influence in a resistance of another's claim, than the desire to keep demanded. In such a case the national pride is not when that which is yielded to is the award of a neutral ot the demand of an opponent. It has been suggested ham and Mill that the civilized states of the world stablish among themselves a congress, which should te on all disputes between its members, the members cluded from voting in their own disputes. Second department into which we have considered ocal law divided-the rights, and obligations of indiaffected by the conduct of states towards each other Te the first, been examined by the publicists in their al manner; but it has never, perhaps, received so actical illustration as it did in the British courts, parthe Prize Admiralty Court, during the late wars. In ic country it would of course scarcely ever occur that h should fail to give effect to the national policy of ernment, whatever that may be. But in England it rule that foreigners as well as natives were entitled to administration of the law, and that, if the proceedthe government were at variance with the rights of according to the law of peace and war, individuals ive redress. Thus, when Great Britain, in opposition erlin decrees, tried to establish a 'paper blockade,' say, by force of orders in council to declare places der blockade, whether there were a force present to it or not, Sir William Scott found that in the very {a complete blockade, it is included that the besieging apply its power to every point in the blockaded If it cannot, it is no blockade of that quarter where its not be brought to bear.' frequently been observed, that as to all departments of nations, uncivilized countries are at the mercy of ized: that not having any means of reciprocating the international laws, from their having no systematic es of their own, they have not even the frail tenure ally received opinions as to what the conduct of indenations towards each other ought to be, for their . This is in some measure true. If a weak civiion, which can eloquently appeal to the law of nations, protected against the injustice of a strong nation, still ctually are a barbarous community, who never heard national law, and know not how to appeal to its edged principles, protected by it; and, in regard to he humanity and conscience of the powerful nations in contact with them are their protection, rather than s of international law. Thus when, as in the instance nial government or otherwise, such a nation as the has to deal with the inhabitants of a barbarous country, be said that these inhabitants have the law of nations al to if they are unjustly treated, and there is no for their being well and humanely used but the and conscience of the British nation and its governHow far civilized nations had in former times disreall feelings of common humanity in their intercourse ferior races, the history of colonization, and especially ating to the continent of America, is a horrible record. days higher notions have been entertained of the bility of superior power, and the civilized man has in peasure ceased to make his first advances to the notice hubarian in the character of a murderer and a pillager. bas in this improved morality so far advanced before ations, as to be the protector of barbarous races from ession of others, in her efforts for the abolition of the Pade and the preservation of aboriginal nations. These in so far as they are an anomaly in the general conduct ms, have introduced some necessary exceptions to the of international law applicable to the rights of persons. has consisted in the necessity of treating those who are P. C. S., No. 98. injured by the slave trade, viz. the slaves carried off, as if they were subjects of this country subjected to injury, while the deporters have likewise been of necessity treated in the general case as if they were subjects of this country doing the injury. The effect of this state of matters, as an exceptional principle in international law, sometimes occasions difficult questions. In the late case of the Felicidade, a foreign slaver had been captured and taken possession of. The crew rose, and putting the captors to death, recaptured the vessel. They were tried and condemned to death for murder in an English court; and the judge who conducted the trial would not admit the plea that, as the capture had taken place under our laws, not their laws, they were entitled to regain possession by any means which they might choose to adopt. He held it right, in fact, to treat the ship as a prison, and the captured seamen as persons in a British prison. On the question however coming before all the judges, the conviction was declared invalid, the principal ground of the reversal being, that the vessel not having slaves on board was not legally liable to seizure. In those cases where it is necessary to diverge from the general principle of international law, for the protection of the weak, it is fortunate that the humane and enlightened motive of proceeding is a guarantee for its being beneficially exercised. The rights of individuals have sometimes been so much affected by the conduct of nations towards each other, that their own nation has been induced to make war against the nation aggressing. This has twice occurred in our intercourse with America: one war was caused by our restrictions on the commerce of America by the orders in council; another by our searching American merchant vessels for British seamen. On the subject of the present unsatisfactory state of the question as to this right of search, Mr. Reddie, in his ‘Maritime International Law' (ii. pp. 43-44), says, Unfortunately this claim of right was left undecided either way even by the hastily concluded treaty of Ghent in 1814, which terminated the war between the parent state and what were originally her colonies. And as the divergence in the personal appearance, language, habits, and manners of the inhabitants of the two countries was not likely, for generations, to be such as to facilitate the discrimination of the subjects of the two states, it is to be regretted the question was not subsequently settled by the negotiations of 1818 upon the equitable footing of regular authentic lists or registers of British and American seamen being made up and kept, and of the nationality of the seamen being thereby determined.' The Third division of international law is that which most properly comes under the head Conflict of Laws,' viz. the principles that should regulate the rights and obligations of private parties when they are affected by the separate internal codes of distinct nations. This has some points in common with the preceding department of the subject. It involves questions with individuals, and not, at least in the first instance, questions with states; and the adjustment of each question depends on the view taken by the law of the country to which the individual or his property is amenable. But it has this distinctive feature, that the circumstances under which disputes may arise are not in the conduct of one nation towards another, but in differences between the internal laws of the countries, which internal laws disagree, not because the one nation has a dispute with the other, but in the general caso because its legislators have taken its internal situation solely into consideration, and have overlooked the existence of other nations. There can be no part of the world where this species of international law can be so well illustrated as in the United States-a collection of communities, each having an internal system of administration, but each acting on principles of harmony and alliance with the other states of the Union. It is thus natural that America should have produced the best work on the subject, in Professor Story's Commentaries on the Conflict of Laws Foreign and Domestic, in regard to Contracts, Rights, and Remedies; and especially in regard to Marriages, Divorces, Wills, Successions, and Judgments,' of which two editions are now known and esteemed in this country. The leading rule of international law in this department is, that each civilized nation is to give efficacy to the laws of another country, unless its own laws or the general principles of justice are thereby invaded. We have the broadest and most distinct illustrations of this rule in the criminal law. The progress of opinion has lately been in favour of each nation rendering back fugitive criminals, to be dealt with according to the law of the country where they have committed any private crime against person or property. In conformity with VOL. II.-O this principle, treaties were lately made with France and the through registration of the vesting order, the assignee be United States of America, for enforcing which, in this country, invested with all real or landed property in any part o two acts of parliament were passed (6 & 7 Vict. c. 75 and c. British dominions where a conveyance of such prope 76), by which a secretary of state, on the requisition of the quires to be recorded. (See 1 & 2 Wm. IV. c. 56, ambassador or other representative of France or the United 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110, § 46.) It could not have been the States, might issue a warrant to magistrates to seize a person tion of this provision to give an English assignee pr... accused of a crime, a magistrate being enjoined to put it in which a trustee of a bankrupt estate does not hold is force on his being satisfied that the charge is of such a land; but while the latter requires to make up a feuil nature as would authorise him to commit a person charged before he can be the recorded proprietor of real pra with perpetrating it in his own jurisdiction. [CONVENTION was found by the Court of Session in the strict inter TREATIES, P. C. S.] But it has been a rule in many countries, of the English provision that no such preliminary wa and particularly in our own, that no aid is to be given for the sary, and that the registration of the vesting order r enforcement of the political laws of foreign states. As in other ficient. (Rattray v. White, 8th March, 1842, 4 D., §× branches of international law, our enlightened principles on The conflicts of laws between England and Scot the subject of slavery have here been the cause of perplexing course in this part of the world the most important difficulties. With slave-holding countries slavery comes to resting. The consuetudinary or unstatutory law of .. be a question of property, but with us it can only be a ques- has perhaps fewer principles in common with that of S. tion of government; and we cannot view any rules regarding than the latter has with the law of any other country property in slaves as laws relating to private rights, an in-rope; and this divergency has been the cause of many fringement of which, when held to be criminal in the slave- questions. In these the law of marriage and that of si holding country, must be so also here. Accordingly, in the have been particularly fertile. In the former the c celebrated case of the Creole, in November, 1841, when cer- between the institutions of the two countries, when s tain American slaves escaped and found protection in a British to the principles of international law, has been prod settlement, it was found that we could not send them back to very remarkable effects. In England there are cert their owners as robbers who had with violence stolen their which are necessary ingredients, by the statute law, cf. own persons from the custody of their proprietors. marriage. In Scotland the consent of parties to m other as man and wife, when sufficiently attested, is, 85, to the doctrines of the civilians, sufficient. But in it is a principle of international law that a marriag the place where it is contracted is valid in England; quence is, that the lax principle of marriage by simple: consent would have probably fallen into desuetude a livion in Scotland, were it not kept up by Englishwho thus evade the restrictions of their own law. I subject of succession, a series of decisions in both has settled two very important principles-that in the s landed property it follows the lex rei site, or the law i place where the property is; while in moveable of p property it follows the lex domicilii, or law of the do which the person leaving it died. INTERROGATORIES. [EQUITY, P. C.] INVENTION. [PATENT, P. C.; COPYRIGHT, P INVENTION AND DISCOVERY. The rich individuals, as to the honour due to the originatin a views, processes, or methods, are matters of constant d sion in the history of letters and science. It is strang the subject should never have been generally treated a default of better, we intend to put together some rele rials for consideration, which may perhaps help the reader of the history of science (from which our e will mostly be drawn) in forming his opinion of the versies which there abonnd. As on the one hand the criminal law is that to which this department of international law most broadly and distinctly applies, on the other hand the position of real or landed property is that to which it has generally the least reference. The reasons of this distinction are very obvious: his own personal conduct is that object of the law which a man most com→ pletely carries about from one country to another; his connection with landed property is the relation in which a tribunal out of the country in which the property is, can have the least chance of adjudicating. Between these extremes there are many questions regarding persons in their relations to each other, and regarding contracts as to moveable or personal property. It came thus to be a general principle, that rights connected with landed property must always be settled by the law of the place where the land lies, while questions regarding other property might be subjected to other criterions of jurisdiction. Perhaps historical circumstances in the early history of the European nations favoured this division. The various tribes which occupied the territory of the Roman empire appear to have carried with them their own peculiar laws and customs. Savigny quotes a letter from Bishop Agobardus, in which he says it often happens that five men, each under a different law, may be found walking or sitting together-a state of society at this day exemplified in some oriental nations. Among all these distinct tribes the feudal system arose as the general and uniform territorial law. Through a series of circumstances which need not be here narrated, the civil or Invention and discovery are, for our present purpose. Roman law became the ruling principle as to persons in their mous terms. As commonly used, the first word relation to each other when that relation was not of a feudal the formation of something which would not necessi character, and as to claims regarding moveable goods. The existed, but for the invention; the second means the common law of England has perhaps had the least affinity out that which always did exist, and would have with the other European codes. But it has fortunately hap-whether the discovery had been made or not. We pened that those departments of the law with which international questions are chiefly concerned, the consistorial and the admiralty law, have been considered as the legitimate offspring of the civil law, and have adopted in a great measure its principles as they have been in practice throughout Europe. The mercantile law in general of England has accommodated itself to the custom of merchants; and this custom has in a great measure arisen out of the adaptation to modern commerce of the principles of the civil law. The portion of the commercial code of England which is least in harmony with that of other countries is perhaps the bankruptcy law, which, being statutory, has not so pliantly adapted itself to the exigencies of foreign commerce as the consuetudinary portions of the commercial law have done. Thus, under the old sequestration or bankruptcy statute of Scotland, which was supposed to give the trustee or assignee full power for obtaining possession of the bankrupt's property in all parts of the world, it was found that he had no right of action for a debt due to the bankrupt in England-the right of the trustee being that of an assignee merely, and a right to a debt being a chose in action, and therefore not capable of being assigned by the law of England. See Jeffrey v. M Taggart, 6 M. & S. (K. B.), 126. The law of bankruptcy appears to be one of the most difficult of adjustment to international principles. There are clauses in the bankruptcy and insolvency acts of England by which, prob fectly see the error in the assertion, set down for c |