his office, he is still very powerful though the House as a whole is more nearly supreme. It might be well to add here that, paradoxical as it may seem, much better results for the people would be obtained if they were not represented by so large a body of legislators. If the House were one third smaller, responsibility could be more easily fixed, and business would be greatly expedited.

LIBRARY REFERENCES

Beard: American Citizenship, ch. XVIII.

Bryce: The American Commonwealth, I (3d ed.), chs. XIV, XV, XVI.

Boynton School Civics, ch. X.

Follett: The Speaker, 116-121; 251-253.

Forman: Advanced Civics, chs. XVII, XXXII.

Garner: Government in the United States, ch. XI.

Garner: Introduction to Political Science, 458–469.

Hart: Actual Government, ch. XIII.

Haskin: The American Government, ch. XXI.

James and Sanford: Government in State and Nation, rev. ed., 145-160.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS

1. Who are the real law makers in the United States?

2. Show how public opinion develops.

3. How does an idea become a law?

4. How are members of different conventions chosen as delegates? 5. Why does a republic depend so much upon organization?

6. Where must bills for revenue originate? Why?

7. Trace a bill through Congress.

8. Describe the committee system of Congress.

9. Why was the President given the right to veto?

10. What is filibustering? Is it ever justifiable?

II. How may a bill be passed over the President's veto?

QUESTION FOR DEBATE

Resolved, That all the meetings and proceedings of committees

in Congress should be public.

CHAPTER VIII

THE POWERS OF CONGRESS

Article I, Sec. 8.

Clause 1.

The Congress shall have power:

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States.

To grant the power to lay and collect taxes, duties and imposts, and make them uniform throughout the United States, was one of the most difficult problems the constitutional convention had to solve. The experience of the government under the Articles of Confederation, however, proved that this power must be granted. Nothing less could hold the states together, or give the new government any stability whatever; hence the above constitutional provision.

The subject of federal taxes is discussed more fully in Chapter IX.

Sec. 8, Clause 2.

States.

To borrow money on the credit of the United

This subject is discussed in Chapter X.

Sec. 8, Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.

Regulation of Commerce. Prior to the adoption of the Constitution, each state had the power to regulate its own commerce with foreign nations and with other states.

Naturally each state used every effort to serve its own interest even though it were detrimental to the other states, or even to the general welfare of the nation. This, of course, was very unsatisfactory, as it worked many grievous wrongs to individuals and to states, and therefore the constitutional convention had but little hesitation in granting to Congress the power to regulate commerce. The powers of Congress granted in this clause were limited by Section 9, Clause 5, relative to articles exported from any state; also by Section 9, Clause 6, regarding the regulation of interstate commerce and revenue. This subject is treated further in Chapter IX.

Sec. 8, Clause 4. — To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States.

An Alien. Congress is given the power to provide for the uniform naturalization of aliens. An alien is a person who, on account of his birth under the jurisdiction of a foreign country, is not entitled to all the privileges of citizens of the United States.

Naturalization. - Naturalization is the legal act by which the alien is admitted into the same privileges as those enjoyed by a natural-born citizen, except eligibility to the presidency and the vice presidency.

Citizenship. - Congress has never given a definition of citizenship, neither is it defined by the Constitution. The Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution tells us who are citizens in the following language: "All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens thereof, and of the states wherein they reside." Kent defines a citizen as follows: "Citizens under our Constitution and

laws, mean free inhabitants born within the United States or naturalized under the laws of Congress." In 1790 Congress passed a naturalization law, and since then nearly two dozen other laws have been passed on the subject. Under these definitions an alien can become a citizen only by complying with the requirements prescribed by Congress.

Naturalization Laws of the States. If each state had the power to form its own naturalization laws, we should have as many different kinds of laws as we have states. This would lead to much confusion, abuse, and injustice. While the work of naturalizing a citizen belongs to the federal government, it does not necessarily follow that a state cannot, under its laws, extend certain privileges to the alien and permit him under specified conditions to vote even before he is naturalized. But such privileges cannot extend beyond the limits of the state granting this citizenship. Hence no state can make an alien a citizen of the United States; the national government alone having this power. But a state can extend to the alien such political and civil rights within its jurisdiction as are not contrary to the laws of the United States. This has frequently caused trouble through corrupt and lawless politicians using foreigners to carry elections when these aliens had no conception of citizenship whatever.

Steps Necessary to obtain Citizenship. 1. An alien arrives in this country. Chinese, except as students and travelers, insane persons, paupers, polygamists, laborers under contract except skilled workers in a new industry, and people afflicted with contagious diseases are excluded from our shores; also, a minimum sum of money or amount of property is necessary before the alien is allowed to enter

our country. No people of the Mongolian race (Chinese or Japanese) can be naturalized.

2. At least two years before his final admission, the alien makes oath or affirmation before a circuit or district court of the United States, or a court of record of the state, setting forth that he is at least eighteen years of age, able to read his own language, and to read and speak English; further, he declares his intention to become a citizen of the United States and to renounce all allegiance to any other government. This declaration of intention, made at least two years before the applicant's final admission, is generally known as his first papers.

3. After not less than two nor more than seven years from the time he makes the above first declaration, and at least five years from the time he came to this country, 'the applicant for citizenship must appear before a court and declare on oath that he will support the Constitution of the United States and renounce all allegiance to any foreign government. If he has a title of nobility, he is required to renounce it also, as titles of nobility are not recognized in the United States. Upon the application for the final papers the court admitting the candidate must have positive evidence that he has resided in the United States for at least five years, that his conduct has been good, and that he has resided for at least one year in the state or territory where the court is held.

Condensed help. One may forfeit citizenship by deserting from the military or naval service.

Under a law passed by Congress in 1882 and since modified and renewed, Chinese cannot become citizens.

An American woman who marries an alien is not entitled to American protection.