Gur-Amir, the tomb of Timur. This consists of a chapel crowned with a dome, enclosed by a wall and fronted by an archway. Time and earthquakes have greatly injured this fine building. The interior walls are covered with elegant turquoise arabesques and inscriptions in gold. The citadel (reconstructed in 1882 and preceding years) is situated on a hill whose steep slopes render it one of the strongest in Central Asia. Its walls, 3000 yds. in circuit and about 10 ft. high, enclose a space of about go acres. Within it are the palace of the amir of Bokhara-a vulgar modern building now a hospital-and the audience hall of Timur a long narrow court, surrounded by a colonnade, and containing the kok-tash, or stone of justice. Ruins of former buildings-heaps of plain and enamelled bricks, among which Graeco-Bactrian coins have been found-occur over a wide area round the present city, especially on the W. and N. The name of Aphrosiab is usually given to these ruins. Five m. S.W. of Samarkand is the college Khoja Akrar; its floral ornamentation in enamelled brick is one of the most beautiful in Samarkand. Nothing but the ruins of a palace now mark the site of a once famous garden, Baghchi-sarai. Of the Graeco-Armenian library said to have been brought to Samarkand by Timur no traces have been discovered, and Vambéry regards the legend as invented by the Armenians. Every trace of the renowned high school Kalinder-khaneh has also disappeared. Sambalpur lapsed to the British in 1849, and was attached to Bengal until 1862, when it was transferred to the Central Provinces. The early revenue administration was not successful. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 a general rising of the chiefs took place, and it was not until the final arrest of Surandra Sa, in 1864, that tranquillity was restored, In October 1905* Sambalpur was transferred back again to Bengal, without the subdivisions of Phuljhar and Chandarpur-Padampur. See Sambalpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1909). SAMBHAR LAKE, a salt lake in Rajputana, India, on the borders of the two states of Jodhpur and Jaipur. The town of the same name has a railway station 53 m. N.E. from Ajmer: pop. (1901) 10,873. The area of the lake when full is about 90 sq. m., but it usually dries up altogether in the hot season. Since 1870 the British government has worked the salt under a lease from the two states interested, supplying great part of N. and Central India. The annual output averages about 126,000 tons, yielding a profit of more than half a million sterling. SAMBLANCAY, or SEMBLANÇAY, a French noble family of Touraine, sprung from the merchant class. The founder of the family was JEAN DE BEAUNE (d. c. 1489), treasurer of Louis XI., who narrowly escaped death for conspiracy under Charles VIII. His son, JACQUES DE BEAUNE, baron de Samblançay, vicomte de Tours, became general of finances before 1497, and from 1518 was superintendent of finances. Convicted of peculation in connexion with the supplies for the army in Italy, he was executed at Montfaucon on the 9th of August 1527. His eldest son, MARTIN DE BEAUNE, who became archbishop of Tours in 1520, died in the same year as his father. Another son, GUILLAUME DE BEAUNE, general of finances under his father, and banished from 1527 to 1535, was the father of the famous prelate, RENAUD DE BEAUNE (1527-1606), archbishop of Bourges (1581) and of Sens (1595). His efforts at pacification during the wars of religion culminated in the conversion of Henry IV., and it was he who presided at the ceremony of the king's abjuration of Protestantism on the 25th of July 1593. Renaud was one of the most famous orators of his time, and some of his productions have come down to us, as well as his Réformation de l'université de Paris (1605 and 1667). A less honourable descendant of Jacques de Beaune was CHARLOTTE DE BEAUNE-SAMBLANÇAY (c.1550-1617), a courtesan whom Catherine de Medici employed to discover the secrets of her courtly enemies. She counted among her lovers and dupes the king of Navarre (Henry IV.), the duc d'Alençon (Henry III.), Henry I., duc de Guise and others. The duc de Guise was killed when leaving her aparthand-ments in the early morning of Christmas Day 1588. She was married early in life to Simon de Fizes, baron de Sauves, a secretary of state, and again in 1584 to François de la Trémoille, marquis de Noirmoutiers, by whom she had a son, Louis, ist duc de Noirmoutiers, a ducal line which became extinct in 1733. Charlotte died on the 30th of September 1617. The present Moslem city is an intricate labyrinth of narrow, winding streets, bordered by dirty courtyards and miserable houses. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is gardening. There is a certain amount of industry in metallic wares, tallow and soap, tanneries, potteries, various tissues, dyeing, harness, boots and silver and gold wares. The best harness, ornamented with turquoises, and the finer products of the goldsmith's art, are imported from Bokhara and Afghanistan. The products of the local potteries are very fine. The bazaars of Samarkand are more animated and kept with much greater cleanliness than those of Tashkent and Namangan. The trade is very brisk, the chief items being cotton, silk, wheat and rice, horses, asses, fruits and cutlery. Wheat, rice and silk are exported chiefly to Bokhara; cotton to Russia, via Tashkent. Silk wares and excellent fruits are imported from Bokhara, and rock-salt from Hissar. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) SAMBALPUR, a town and district of British India, in the Orissa division of Bengal. The town is on the left bank of the river Mahanadi, 495 ft. above sea-level, the terminus of a branch of the Bengal-Nagpur railway. Pop. (1901) 12,870. It contains a ruined fort with old temples. The garrison of native infantry was withdrawn in 1902. There is considerable trade, and weaving of tussore silk and cotton cloth are carried on. The DISTRICT OF SAMBALPUR has an area of 3773 sq. m. The Mahanadi, which is the only important river, divides it into unequal parts. The greater portion is an undulating plain, with ranges of rugged hills running in every direction, the largest of which is the Bara Pahar, covering an area of 350 sq. m., and attaining at Debrigarh a height of 2267 ft. above the plain. The Mahanadi affords means of water communication for 90 m.; its principal tributaries in Sambalpur are the Ib, Kelo and Jhira. To the W. of the Mahanadi the district is well cultivated. The soil is generally light and sandy. It is occupied for the greater part by crystalline metamorphic rocks; but part of the N.W. corner is composed of sandstone, limestone and shale. Gold dust and diamonds have been found near Hirakhuda or Diamond Island, at the junction of the Ib and Mahanadi. The climate of Sambalpur is considered very unhealthy; the annual rainfall averages 59 in. The population in 1901 was 640,243, showing an increase of 3.2% in the decade. The registered death-rate for 1897 was only 30 per thousand, as against 68 for the province generally. This figure shows that Sambalpur entirely escaped the famine of 1896-1897, which indeed can be said to have brought prosperity to the district by causing high prices for a good rice crop, rice being the staple of cultivation. It was almost equally fortunate in 1900. The main line of the BengalNagpur railway runs along the N. border of the district, with a branch S. to Sambalpur town. XXIV 3 SAMBOURNE, EDWARD LINLEY (1844-1910), English draughtsman, illustrator and designer, was born in London, on the 4th of January 1844. He was educated at the City of London School, and also received a few months' education at the South Kensington School of Art. After a six years' gentleman apprenticeship" with John Penn & Son, marine engineers, Greenwich, his humorous and fanciful sketches made surreptitiously in the drawing-office of that firm were shown to Mark Lemon, editor of Punch, and at once secured him an invitation to draw for that journal. In April 1867 appeared his first sketch, "Pros and Cons," and from that time his work was regularly seen, with rare exceptions, in the weekly pages of Punch. In 1871 he was called to the Punch "table." At the beginning he made his name by his "social" drawings and especially by his highly elaborated initial letters. He drew his first political cartoon, properly so-called, in 1884, and ten years later began regularly to design the weekly second cartoon, following Sir John Tenniel as chief cartoonist in 1901. Examples of his best work in book illustration are in Sir F. C. Burnand's New Sandford and Merton (1872), and in Charles Kingsley's Water Babies (1885), which contains some of his most delicate τα SAMNAN, SIMNAN, or SEMNAN, a small province of Persia, and delightful drawings. The design for the Diploma for the Fisheries Exhibition (1883) is of its kind one of the most extra-which, including the city and district of Damghan, is generally ordinary things in English art. As a political designer, while distinguished for wit and force, he was invariably refined and good-humoured to the uttermost; yet it is essentially as an artist that he takes his highest place. He died on the 3rd of August 1910. See M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (London, 1895). SAMBUCA, SAMBUTE, SAMBIUT, SAMBUE, SAMBUQUE, an ancient stringed instrument of Asiatic origin generally supposed to be a small triangular harp of shrill tone (Arist. Quint. Meib. ii. p. 101). The sambuca was probably identical with the Phoenician sabecha and the Aramaic sabka, the Greek form being oaußixn. The sabka is mentioned in Dan. iii. 5, 10, 15, where it is erroneously translated sackbut. The sambuca has been compared to the military engine of the same name by some classical writers; Polybius likens it to a rope ladder; others describe it as boat-shaped. Among the musical instruments known, the Egyptian nanga best answers to these descriptions. These definitions are doubtless responsible for the medieval drawings representing the sambuca as a kind of tambourine,' for Isidor elsewhere defines the symphonia as a tambourine. During the middle ages the word sambuca was applied (1) to a stringed instrument about which little can be discovered, (2) to a wind instrument made from the wood of the elder tree (sambucus). In an old glossary (Fundgruben, i. 368), article vloy! (flute), the sambuca is said to be a kind of flute. "Sambuca vel sambucus est quaedam arbor parva et mollis, unde haec sambuca est quaedam species symphoniae qui fit de illa arbore." Isidor of Seville (Etym. 2. 20) describes it as "Sambuca in musicis species est symphoniarum. Est enim genus ligni fragilis unde et tibiae componuntur." In a glossary by Papias of Lombardy (c. 1053), first printed at Milan in 1476, the sambuca is described as a cithara, which in that century was generally glossed" harp," i.e. "Sambuca, genus cytherae rusticae." In Tristan (7563-72) the knight is enumerating to King Marke all the instruments upon which he can play, the sambiut being the last mentioned: "Waz ist daz, lieber mann? -Daz veste Seitspiel daz ich kann."` In a Latin-French glossary (M.S. at Montpelier, H. 110, fol. 212 v.) Psalterium sambue. During the later middle ages sambuca was often translated sackbut in the vocabularies, whether merely from the phonetic similarity of the two words has not yet been established. The great Boulogne Psalter (xi. c.) contains, among other fanciful instruments which are evidently intended to illustrate the equally vague and fanciful descriptions of instruments in the apocryphal letter of S. Jerome, ad Dardanum, a Sambuca, which resembles a somewhat primitive sackbut (q.v.) without the bell joint. It is reproduced by Coussemaker, Lacroix and Viollet-le-Duc, and has given rise to endless discussions without leading to any satisfactory solution. (K. S.) SAMLAND, a peninsula of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, on the Baltic. It separates the Frisches Haff on the W. from the Kurisches Haff on the N.E., and is bounded on the S. by the river Pregel and on the E. by the Deime. Its shape is oblong; it is 43 m. long, and 18 broad, and has an area of 900 sq. m. The surface is mostly flat, but on the W. sand-hills rise to a height of 300 ft. The chief product is amber. The former episcopal see of Samland was founded by Pope Innocent IV. in 1249 and subordinated to the archbishop of Riga. Bishop Georg von Polentz embraced the Reformation in 1523, and in 1525 the district was incorporated with the duchy of Prussia. See Reusch, Sagen des preussischen Samlandes (2nd ed., Königsberg, 1863); Jankowsky, Das Samland und seine Bevölkerung (Königsberg, 1902); Hensel, Samland Wegweiser (4th ed., Königsberg, 1905); and the Urkundenbuch des Bistums Samland, edited by Wolky and Mendthal (Leipzig, 1891-1904). 1 See Michael Praetorius, Synt. Mus. (Wolfenbüttel, 1618), p. 248 and pl. 42, where the illustration resembles a tambourine, but the description mentions strings, showing that the author himself was puzzled. known as "Samnan va Damghan. It is bounded on the W. by the districts of Khar (the ancient Choara) and Firuzkuh, on the N. by Mazandaran, and on the E. by Shahrud and Bostam. In the S. it extends beyond the oasis of Jendek in the deşert N. of Yezd. Its northern part is still known as Komush or Komish, the ancient Commisene. The revenue amounts to about £7000 per annum. SAMNAN, the capital of the province, is situated 145 m. E. of Teheran, on the high road thence to Meshed, at an altitude of 3740 ft. in 35° 34′ N., 53° 22′ E. It has a population of about 10,000, post and telegraph offices, and a fine minaret, built in the 12th century. It exports pistachios, almonds and coarse tobacco. A dialect with many old Persian forms and resembling the Mazandaran dialect is spoken. A. Houtum-Schindler, "Bericht über d. Samnán Dialect," Zeitsch. d. morgenl. Gesellschaft, vol. xxxii. (1878). SAMNITES, the name given by the Romans to the warlike tribes inhabiting the mountainous centre of the S. half of Italy. The word Samnites was not the name, so far as we know, used by the Samnites themselves, which would seem rather to have been (the Oscan form of) the word which in Latin appears as Sabini (see below). The ending of Samnites seems to be connected with the name by which they were known to the Greeks of the Campanian coast, which by the time of Polybius had become Zavvirai; and it is in connexion with the Greeks of Cumae and Naples that we first hear of the collision between Rome and the Samnites. We know both from tradition and from surviving inscriptions (see OSCA LINGUA and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 169 to 206) that they spoke Oscan; and tradition records that the Samnites were an offshoot of the Sabines (see e.g. Festus, p. 326 Mueller). On two inscriptions, of which one is unfortunately incomplete, and the other is the legend on a coin of the Social War, we have the form Safinim, which would be in Latin *Sabinium, and is best regarded as the nominative or accusative singular, neuter or masculine, agreeing with some substantive understood, such as nummum (see R. S. Conway, ibid. pp. 188 and 216). The abundance of the ethnica ending in the suffix -no- in all the Samnite districts classes them unmistakably with the great Safine stock, so that linguistic evidence confirms tradition (see further SABINI). The Samnites are thus shown to be intimately related to the patrician class at Rome (see ROME: history, ad init.), so that it was against their own stock that the Romans had to fight their hardest struggle for the lordship of Italy, a struggle which might never have arisen but for the geographical accident by which the Etruscan and Greek settlements of Campania divided into two halves the Safine settlements in central Italy. The longest and most important monument of the Oscan language, as it was spoken by the Samnites (in, probably, the 3rd century B.C.) is the small bronze tablet, engraved on both sides, known as the Tabula Agnonensis, found in 1848 at the modern village Agnone, in the heart of the Samnite district, not very far from the site of Bovianum, which was the centre of the N. group of Samnites called Pentri (see below). This inscription, now preserved in the British Museum, is carefully engraved in full Oscan alphabet, and perfectly legible (facsimile given by Mommsen, Unteritalische Dialekte, Taf. 7, and by I. Zvetaieff, Sylloge inscriptionum Oscarum). The text and commentary will be found in Conway, op. cit. p. 191: it contains a list of deities to whom statues were erected in the precinct sacred to Ceres, or some allied divinity, and on the back a list of deities to whom altars were erected in the same place. Among those whose names are immediately intelligible may be mentioned those of "Jove the Ruler "and of "Hercules Cerealis." The other names are full of interest for the student of both the languages For the difficult questions involved in the obscure and fragmentary accounts of the so-called First Samnite War, which ended in 341 B.C., the reader is referred to J. Beloch, Campanien, 2nd ed., PP. 442 ff., and to the commentators on Livy vii. 29 ff. and the religions of ancient Italy. The latest attempts at interpretation will be found in R. S. Conway, Dialectorum Italicarum exempla selecta (s.v.) and C. D. Buck, Oscan and Umbrian Grammar, p. 254. The Samnite towns in or near the upper valley of the Volturnus, namely, Telesia, Allifae, Aesernia, and the problematic Phistelia, learnt the art of striking coins from their neighbours in Campania, on the other side of the valley, Compulteria and Venafrum, in the 4th century B.C. (see Conway, op. cit. p. 196). The Samnite alliance when it first appears in history, in the 4th century B.C., included those tribes which lay between the Paeligni to the N., the Lucani to the S., the Campani to the W., the Frentani and Apuli to the E.: that is to say, the Hirpini, Pentri and Caraceni, and perhaps also the Caudini (J. Beloch, Italischer Bund, p. 167, and R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, pp. 169 and 183); but with these are sometimes classed other friendly and kindred communities in neighbouring territory, like the Frentani and Atina (Liv. x. 39). But after the war with Pyrrhus the Romans for ever weakened the power of the Italic tribes by dividing this central mountainous tract into two halves. The territories of the Latin colony Beneventum (268 B.C.) and the Ager Taurasinus (Livy xl. 38, C.I.L., 1st ed., i. 30) united that of Saticula on the W. (313 B.C.) to that of Luceria on the E., and cut off the Hirpini from their kinsaien by a broad belt of land under Latin occupation (Velleius Pat. i. 14; Liv. lx. 26). At the same time Allifae and Venafrum became praefectures (Fest. p. 233 M), and the Latin colony of Aesernia was founded in 263 B.C. in purely Samnite territory to command the upper Volturnus valley. We hear of no further resistance in the N. of Samnium till the general rising of Italy in go B.C.; but the more southerly Hirpini (q.v.) henceforth acted independently. (R. S. C.) SAMOA, an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, about 150 m. N. of Tonga and nearly midway between the New Hebrides and Tahiti, 1600 m. from Auckland (New Zealand), 2410 from Sydney and 4200 from San Francisco. (For Map, see PACIFIC OCEAN.) It consists of 14 islands forming a slightly curved chain from W. by N. to E. by S., between 13° 30' and 14° 30′ S., 168° and 173° W. as follows: Savaii, Manono, Apolima, Upolu, Fanuatapu, Manua, Nuutele and Nuulua, belonging to Germany, and Tutuila, Anua, Ofu, Olosenga, Tau and Rose, belonging to the United States of America. The principal of these are Savaii (area, 660 sq. m., pop. 13,200), Upolu (340 sq. m., pop. 18,400), Tutuila (54 sq. m., pop. 3800), and the Manua group, which includes Tau with Ofu and Olosenga (25 sq. m., pop. 2000). Some of the smaller islands are also thickly populated, so that the total population is about 39,000, whites numbering about 500. With the exception of Rose Island, which is an uninhabited coral islet 70 m. E. of its nearest neighbour, and therefore scarcely belongs geographically to the group, all the islands are considerably elevated, with several extinct or quiescent craters rising from 2000 ft. in Upolu to 4000 (Mua) in Savaii. Although there are no active cones, Upolu has in comparatively recent times been subject to volcanic disturbances, and according to a local tradition, outbreaks must have occurred in the 17th or 18th century. In 1866 a submarine volcano near the islet of Olosenga was the scene of a violent commotion, discharging rocks and mud to a height of 2000 ft. Earthquakes are not uncommon and sometimes severe. Coral reefs protect the coasts in many parts; they are frequently interrupted, but the passages through them are often difficult of navigation. The whole group is abundantly watered, and the igneous soil is marvellously fertile. The scenery of the islands is extremely beautiful. Upolu is long and narrow; it has a backbone of mountains whose flanks are scored with lovely valleys, at the foot of which are flat cultivable tracts. Of its harbours Apia and Saluafata, both on the N. coast, are most important. Mount Vaea, which overlooks Apia and Vailima, the home of Robert Louis Stevenson, is his burial-place and bears a monument to his memory. Tutuila, the principal island belonging to the United States, resembles Upolu, and has on its S. side the harbour of Pago Pago or Pango Pango, the finest in the group. Climate, Flora, Fauna.-The climate is moist and sometimes A fine season oppressively hot, though pleasant on the whole. extends from April to September; a wet season from October to March. The temperature is equable-at Apia the mean annual temperature is 78 F., the warmest month being December (80°) and the coldest July (75°-76°). The prevalent winds, which temper the heat, are the S.E. trades, but W. winds supervene from January which occur usually in this period. On the 16th of March 1889 the to March. The archipelago lies in the track of the fierce hurricanes heavy tidal waves created havoc in the harbour of Apia. The American warship 'Nipsic was cast upon the beach, but was afterwards floated and saved. Two other United States warships, reef; and the German warships "Olga " and " Eber Trenton" and "Vandalia," were beaten to pieces on the coral were wrecked with great loss of life. The British warship "Calliope" (Captain Pearson) was in the harbour, but succeeded in getting up steam and, standing out to sea, escaped destruction. In A Footnote to History R. L. Stevenson vividly describes the heroism of the captain and crew. The Samoan forests are remarkable for the size and variety of their trees, and the luxuriance and beauty of tree-ferns, creepers and parasites. The coco-nut palm and bread-fruit are of peculiar twenty of the other. Hand timber trees, of use in boat-building, &c., value to the inhabitants; there are sixteen varieties of the one, and are especially characteristic of Savaii. Of the extremely limited Samoan fauna, consisting mainly of an indigenous rat, four species of snakes and a few birds, the most interesting member is the Didunculus strigirostris, a ground pigeon of iridescent greenish-black and bright chestnut plumage, which forms a link between the extinct dodo and the living African Treroninae. Natives.-The Samoans are pure Polynesians, and according to the dispersion of the race over the Pacific Ocean from Hawaii to New traditions of many Polynesian peoples Savaii was the centre of Zealand. Apart from tradition, Samoan is the most archaic of all the Polynesian tongues, and still preserves the organic letter s, which becomes h or disappears in nearly all the other archipelagos. been carried by the Samoan wanderers over the ocean to Tahiti, Thus the term Savaii itself, originally Savaiki, is supposed to have New Zealand, the Marquesas and Sandwich groups, where it still survives in such variant forms as Havaii, Hawaiki, Havaiki and Hawaii. In any case, the Samoans are the most perfect type of Polynesians, of a light brown colour, splendid physique, and handsome regular features, with an average height of 5 ft. 10 in. Their mental and social standard is high among Pacific peoples; they are simple, honourable, generous and hospitable, but brave fighters. Their idolatry (polytheistic) was unaccompanied by human sacrifice. The dead were buried, and their spirits believed to travel to a world entered by a pool at the western extremity of Savaii. They have become mainly Protestants, Catholics or Mormons, but retain many superstitions connected with their native religion. The women and children are well treated. A youth is not regarded as eligible to marry till tattooed from the hips to the knees. The principal foods of the Samoans are vegetables, coco-nut, bread-fruit, fish and pork. They are famous as sailors and boat-builders. The Samoan language is soft and liquid in pronunciation, and has been called "the Italian of the Pacific." It is difficult to learn thoroughly, owing to its many inflexions and accents, and its being largely a language of idioms. (See also POLYNESIA.) Administration and Trade.-The German islands form a crown colony. There is an imperial governor, having under him a native high chief assisted by a native council; and there are both German sovereignty over Tutuila and the islands E. of it in 1900, with the and native judges and magistrates. The United States, on assuming written consent of the native chiefs, appointed a naval governor. Cultivation has been extended under European and American rule, and in 1904 the exports from the German islands had reached a value of £83.750, and those from the American islands of £4200. Copra and cocoa beans are the chief articles of export. La History. It is generally considered that the Manua group was sighted by the Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen in 1722, and named by him the Baaumann islands after the captain of one of his ships. Louis de Bougainville obtained a fuller acquaintance with the archipelago in 1768, and called them the Navigators' Islands (Îles des Navigateurs). This name is still used. Pérouse was among the islands in 1787, and on Tutuila lost some of his crew in a conflict with some natives of Upolu visiting the island. Subsequent explorers were Captain Edwards of the "Pandora " in 1791, and Otto von Kotzebue in 1824. In 1830 the respected missionary John Williams paid his first visit to Samoa. Surveys of the archipelago were made by the American explorer Charles Wilkes. The islands, especially Upolu, now began to attract American and European (mostly German) capitalists, and the Hamburg firm of J. C. Godeffroy & Son developed the trade of the island. Meanwhile a series of petty members, chosen by him out of eight candidates nominated by the four districts of the island-Vathy, Chora, Marathocumbo and Carlovasi. The legislative power belongs to a chamber of 36 deputies, presided over by the metropolitan. The seat of the government is Vathy (6000). There is a telephone service. civil wars greatly interfered with the prosperity of the native population, who grouped themselves into two opposing political parties. Americans and Europeans began to discuss the question of annexation, recognizing the importance of the geographical position of the islands. In 1877 the American consul hoisted his country's flag, but the action was repudiated by his govern-The island is remarkably fertile, and a great portion of it is ment, which, however, in 1878 obtained Pago Pago as a coaling station and made a trading treaty with the natives. In 1879 Germany obtained the harbour of Saluafata. Great Britain followed suit, but under a political arrangement between the powers no single power was to appropriate the islands. But in 1887 and 1888 civil war prevailed on the question of the succession to the native kingship, the Germans supporting Tamasese, and the British and American residents supporting Malietoa. After the latter had been deported by the Germans, the British and American support was transferred to his successor, Mataafa. In the course of the fighting which ensued some fifty German sailors and marines were killed or wounded by the adherents of Mataafa. A conference between the three powers was thereupon held at Berlin, and a treaty was executed by those powers and by Samoa, on the 14th of June 1889, by virtue of which the independence and autonomy of the islands were guaranteed, Malietoa was restored as king, and the three powers constituted them.selves practically a protectorate over Samoa, and provided a chief justice and a president of the municipality of Apia, to be appointed by them, to aid in carrying out the provisions of the treaty. The government was administered under this treaty, but with considerable friction, until the end of 1898, when, upon the death of Malietoa, two rival candidates for the throne again appeared, and the chief justice selected by the three powers decided against the claims of Mataafa, and in favour of a boy, Malietoa Tanu, a relative of the deceased Malictoa. Civil war immediately ensued, in which several American and British officers and sailors were killed by the natives, the Germans upholding the claims of Mataafa, and the British and Americans supporting the rival candidate. The three powers thereupon sent a commission to Samoa to investigate and adjust the difficulties. The situation, however, was found to be so complicated and embarrassing that, early in 1900, the so-called Berlin treaty was abrogated, Great Britain withdrew her claims to any portion of the islands and received compensation from Germany by concessions in other parts of the world, and the United States withdrew from all the islands W. of Tutuila. In 1902 the king of Sweden, as arbitrator under a convention signed at Washington in 1899, decided that Great Britain and the United States were liable for injuries due to action taken by their representatives during the military operations of 1899. See Robert Louis Stevenson, A Footnote to History (London, 1892), and Vailima Letters (London, 1895); G. Turner, Samoa a Hundred Years Ago and Long Before (London, 1884); W. B. Churchward, My Consulate in Samoa (London, 1887); J. B. Stair, Old Samoa (London, 1897); Mary S. Boyd, Our Stolen Summer (London, 1900); L. P. Churchill, Samoa Uma (London, 1902); Journal des museums Godeffroy (Hamburg, 1871-1874); G. Kurze, Samoa, das Land, die Leute und die Mission (Berlin, 1899); O. Ehlers, Samoa, die Perle der Südsee (Berlin, 1900); F. Reinecke, Samoa (Berlin, 1901); A. Kramer, Die Samoa Inseln (Stuttgart, 1902 seq.): parliamentary papers, Correspondence respecting the Affairs of Samoa (London, 1899, &c.), and 1902 (Samoa, Cd. 1083) for the arbitration of the king of Sweden. covered with vineyards, the wine from the Vathy grapes enjoying a specially high reputation. There are three ports: Vathy, Tegani and Carlovasi. The population in 1900 was about 54,830, not comprising 15,000 natives of Samos inhabiting the adjoining coasts. The predominant religion is the Orthodox Greek, the metropolitan district including Samos and Icaria. In 1900 there were 634 foreigners on the island (523 Hellenes, 13 Germans, 29 French, 28 Austrians and 24 of other nationalities). History.-Concerning the earliest history of Samos literary tradition is singularly defective. At the time of the great migrations it in Argolis. By the 7th century B.C. it had become one of the leading received an Ionian population which traced its origin to Epidaurus commercial centres of Greece. This early prosperity of the Samians seems largely due to the island's position near the end of the Macander and Cayster trade-routes, which facilitated the importation of textiles from inner Asia Minor. But the Samians also developed an extensive oversea commerce. They helped to open up trade with the Black Sea and with Egypt, and were credited with having been the first Greeks to reach the Straits of Gibraltar. Their commerce brought them into close relations with Cyrene, and probably also with Corinth and Chalcis, but made them bitter rivals of their neighbours of Miletus. The feud between these two states broke out into open strife during the Lelantine War (7th century B.C.), with which we may connect a Samian innovation in Greek naval warfare, the use of the trireme. The result of this conflict was to confirm the supremacy of the Milesians in castern waters for the time being; but in the 6th century the insular position of Samos preserved it from those aggressions at the hands of Asiatic kings to which Miletus was henceforth exposed. About 535 B.C., when the existing oligarchy was overturned by the tyrant Polycrates (q.v.), Samos reached the height of its prosperity. Its navy not only protected it from invasion, but ruled supreme in Aegean waters. The city was beautified with public works, and its school of sculptors, metal-workers and engineers achieved high repute (see below). After Polycrates' death Samos suffered a severe blow when the regained much of its power when in 499 it joined the general revolt Persians conquered and partly depopulated the island. It had of the Ionians against Persia; but owing to its long-standing jealousy of Miletus it rendered indifferent service, and at the decisive battle of Lade (494) part of its contingent of sixty ships was guilty Persia. In the Delian League they held a position of special privilege of downright treachery. In 479 the Samians led the revolt against and remained actively loyal to Athens until 440, when a dispute with Miletus, which the Athenians had decided against them, induced them to secede. With a fleet of sixty ships they held their own for some time against a large Athenian fleet led by Pericles himself, but after a protracted siege were forced to capitulate and degraded to the rank of tributary state. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Samos appears as one of the most loyal dependencies of Athens; it served as a base for the naval war against the Peloponnesians, and as a temporary home of the Athenian democracy during the revolution of the Four Hundred at Athens (411 B.C.), and in the last stage of the war was rewarded with the Athenian franchise. This friendly attitude towards Athens was the result of a series of political revolutions which ended in the establishment of a democracy. After the downfall of Athens Samos was besieged by Lysander and again placed under an oligarchy. In 394 the withdrawal of the Spartan navy induced the island to declare its independence and reestablish a democracy, but by the peace of Antalcidas (387) it fell again under Persian dominion. It was recovered by the Athenians in 366 after a siege of eleven months, and received a strong body of military settlers. After the Samian War (322), when Athens was deprived of Samos, the vicissitudes of the island can no longer be SAMOS, one of the principal and most fertile of the islands followed. For some time (about 275-270 B.C.) it served as a base for in the Aegean Sea that closely adjoin the mainland of Asia Minor, the Egyptian fleet, at other periods it recognized the overlordship from which it is separated by a strait of only about a mile in of Syria; in 189 B.C. it was transferred by the Romans to the kings width. It is about 27 m. in length, by about 14 in its greatest it sided with Aristonicus (132) and Mithradates (88) against its of Pergamum. Enrolled from 133 in the Roman province of Asia, breadth, and is occupied throughout the greater part of its extent overlord, and consequently forfeited its autonomy, which it only by a range of mountains, of which the highest summit, near its temporarily recovered between the reigns of Augustus and Vespasian. western extremity, called Mount Kerkis, is 4725 ft. high. This Nevertheless, Samos remained comparatively flourishing, and was range is in fact a continuation of that of Mount Mycale on the lonia"; it was chiefly noted as a health resort and for the manuable to contest with Smyrna and Ephesus the title "first city of mainland, of which the promontory of Trogilium, immediately facture of pottery (see below). Under Byzantine rule Samos became opposite to the city of Samos, formed the extreme point. Samos the head of the Aegean theme (military district). After the 13th is tributary to Turkey in the sum of £2700 annually, but other-century it passed through much the same changes of government as wise is practically an independent principality, governed by a Chios (q.v.), and, like the latter island, became the property of the Genoese firm of Giustiniani (1346-1566). At the time of the Turkish prince of Greek nationality nominated by the Porte. As chier conquest it was severely depopulated, and had to be provided with of the executive power the prince is assisted by a senate of four new settlers, partly Albanians, raisins and other dried fruits. During the Greek War of Independence Samos bore a conspicuous | shows influences of an Assyrian type (P. Jensen, Hittiter`u. part, and it was in the strait between the island and Mount Mycale Armenier, 1898, 13); but no cunciform text referring to Samosata that Canaris set fire to and blew upa Turkish frigate, in the presence of the army that had been assembled for the invasion of the island, by name seems yet to have been published. Kummukh, however, a success that led to the abandonment of the enterprise, and Samos the district to which it belonged, was overrun by early Assyrian held its own to the very end of the war. On the conclusion of kings. In consequence of revolt it was made an Assyrian peace the island was indeed again handed over to the Turks, but province in 708 B.C. When the Assyrian empire passed through since 1835 has held an exceptionally advantageous position, being in fact self-governed, though tributary to the Turkish empire, and the hands of Babylon and Persia into those of the successors of ruled by a Greek governor nominated by the Porte, who bears the Alexander, Samosata was the capital of Kummukh, called in title of " Prince of Samos," but is supported and controlled by a Greek Commagene. How soon it became a Greek city we do Greek council and assembly. The prosperity of the island bears not know. Although its ruler Ptolemy renounced allegiance to witness to the wisdom of this arrangement. Its principal article of export is its wine, which was celebrated in ancient times, and still Antiochus IV. the dynasty of Iranian origin which ruled at enjoys a high reputation in the Levant. It exports also silk, oil, Samosata, described by Strabo (l.c.) as a fortified city in a very fertile if not extensive district, allied itself with the Seleucids, The ancient capital, which bore the name of the island, was and bore the dynastic name of Antiochus. There, not long after situated on the S. coast at the modern Tigani, directly opposite to the little kingdom was in A.D. 72 made a province by the Romans, the promontory of Mycale, the town itself adjoining the sea and having a large artificial port, the remains of which are still visible, and its capital received the additional name of Flavia (Suet. as are the ancient walls that surrounded the summit of a hill which Vesp 8, Eutrop. 8. 19), the celebrated Greek writer Lucian rises immediately above it, and now bears the name of Astypalaca. the Satirist was born in the 2nd century (see LUCIAN), and more This formed the acropolis of the ancient city, which in its flourishing than a century later another Lucian, known as the Martyr, and times covered the slopes of Mount Ampelus down to the shore. The aqueduct cut through the hill by Polycrates may still be seen. Paul called" of Samosata." The remains of a fine aqueduct that From this city a road led direct to the far famed temple of Hera, once brought water from the Kiakhta Chai, which begins some which was situated close to the shore, where its site is still marked 6 m. above the town, are probably of the 3rd century A.D. (Geog. by a single column, but even that bereft of its capital. This fragJourn. viii. 323). Under Constantine Samosata gave place as ment, which has given to the neighbouring headland the name of Capo Colonna, is all that remains standing of the temple that was capital of Euphratensis to Hierapolis (Malal. Chron. xiii. p. extolled by Herodotus as the largest he had ever seen, and which 317). It was at Samosata that Julian had ships made in his vied in splendour as well as in celebrity with that of Diana at Ephesus. expedition against Sapor, and it was a natural crossing-place Though so little of the temple remains, the plan of it has been in the struggle between Heraclius and Chosroes in the 7th ascertained, and its dimensions found fully to verify the assertion of Herodotus, as compared with all other Greek temples existing century. Mas'udi in the roth century says it was known also as in his time, though it was afterwards surpassed by the later temple Kal'at at-Tin ("the Clay Castle "). It was one of the strong at Ephesus. fortresses included in the county of Edessa (q.v.). In the 13th century, according to Yaqut, one of its quarters was exclusively inhabited by Armenians. It is now a Kurdish village, which in 1894 consisted of about 100 houses, three of which were Armenian (Geog. Journ. viii. 322). The modern capital of the island was, until recently, at a place called Khora, about 2 m. from the sea and from the site of the ancient city; but since the change in the political condition of Samos the capital has been transferred to Vathy, situated at the head of a deep bay on the N. coast, which has become the residence of the prince and the seat of government. Here a new town has grown up, well built and paved, with a convenient harbour. Samos was celebrated in ancient times as the birth-place of Pythagoras. His name and figure are found on coins of the city of imperial date. It was also conspicuous in the history of art, having produced in early times a school of sculptors, commencing with Rhoccus and Theodorus, who are said to have invented the art of casting statues in bronze. Rhoccus was also the architect of the temple of Hera. The vases of Samos are among the most characteristic products of Ionian pottery in the 6th century. The name Samian ware, often given to a kind of red pottery found wherever there are Roman settlements, has no scientific value. It is derived from a passage in Pliny, N.H. xxxv. 160 sqq. Another famous Samian sculptor was Pythagoras, who migrated to Rhegium. See Herodotus, especially book iii.; Thucydides, especially books i and viii.; Xenophon, Hellenica, books i. ii.; Strabo xiv. pp. 636-639; L. E. Hicks and G. F. Hill, Greek Historical Inscriptions (Oxford, 1901), No. 81; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 515-518; Panofka, Res Samiorum (Berlin, 1822); Curtius, Urkunden zur Geschichte von Samos (Wesel, 1873); H. F. Tozer, Islands of the Aegean (London, 1890); J. Boshlan, Aus ionischen und stalischen Nekropolen. (E. H. B.; M. O. B. C.; E. Gr.) SAMOSATA (Zaμboαтα, -αтwv, Ptol. v. 15 § II; Strabo xvi. 740), called in Arabic literature Sumeisāț,1 is now represented by the village of Samsat, occupying a corner of the ancient site. On a broad plain 1500 ft. above sea-level, Samosata practically marks the place where the mountain course of the Euphrates ends (see MESOPOTAMIA). When the water is high enough it is possible to descend in a kelek in one day to Birejik. The rocky banks contain many ancient cave-dwellings. The stele found there and published by Humann and Puchstein (Reisen in Kleinasien u. Nord-Syrien, Atlas, plate xlix. 1-3) shows that it was at an early time a Hittite centre, probably marking an important route across the Euphrates: whether or not it was the place where later the Persian "royal road " crossed the Euphrates, in Strabo's time it was connected by a bridge with a Seleucia on the Mesopotamian side, and it is now connected by road with Severek and Diarbekr and with Rakka, connecting further, through Edessa. and Harran, with other eastward routes. The Hittite sculptured object referred to above Not to be confused, as Yaqut remarks, with Shamshat, the classical Arsamosata (Ptol. v. 13). SAMOTHRACE (Turk. Semadrek), an island in the N. of the Aegean Sea, nearly opposite the mouth of the Hebrus, and lying N. of Imbros and N.E. of Lemnos. The island is a kaza of the Lemnos sanjak, and has a population of 3500, nearly all Greek. It is still called Samothraki, and though of small extent is, next to Mount Athos, by far the most important natural feature in this part of the Aegean, from its great elevation-the group of mountains which occupies almost the whole island rising to the height of 5240 ft. Its conspicuous character is attested by a well-known passage in the Iliad (xiii. 12), where the poet represents Poseidon as taking post on this lofty summit to survey the plain of Troy and the contest between the Greeks and the Trojans. This mountainous character and the absence of any tolerable harbour-Pliny, in enumerating the islands of the Aegean, calls it importuosissima omnium "-prevented it from ever attaining to any political importance, but it enjoyed great celebrity from its connexion with the worship of the CABEIRI (q.v.), a mysterious triad of divinities, concerning whom very little is known, but who appear, like all the similar deities venerated in different parts of Greece, to have been a remnant of a previously existing Pelasgic mythology. Herodotus expressly tells us that the "orgies" which were celebrated at Samothrace were derived from the Pelasgians (ii. 51). The only occasion on which the island is mentioned in history is during the expedition of Xerxes (B.C. 480), when the Samothracians sent a contingent to the Persian fleet, one ship of which bore a conspicuous part in the battle of Salamis (Herod. viii. 90). But the island appears to have always enjoyed the advantage of autonomy, probably on account of its sacred character, and even in the time of Pliny it ranked as a free state. Such was still the reputation of its mysteries that Germanicus endeavoured to visit the island, but was driven off by adverse winds (Tac. Ann. ii. 54). After visits by travellers, including Cyriac of Ancona (1444), Richter (1822), and Kiepert (1842), Samothrace was explored in 1857 by Conze, who published an account of it, as well as the larger neighbouring islands, in 1860. The "Victory of Samothrace," set up by Demetrius Poliorcetes c. 305 B.C., was discovered in the |