to several benefices. On the recommendation of Laud he was appointed one of the royal chaplains in 1631, and was a favourite preacher with the king, who made him regius professor of divinity at Oxford in 1642. The Civil War kept him from entering the office till 1646; and in 1648 he was ejected by the Parliamentary visitors. He recovered his position at the Restoration, was moderator at the Savoy Conference, 1661, and was promoted to the bishopric of Lincoln. He died two years later on the 29th of January 1663.

His most celebrated work is his Cases of Conscience, deliberate judgments upon points of morality submitted to him. They are distinguished by moral integrity, good sense and learning. His practice as a college lecturer in logic is better evidenced by these "cases" than by his Compendium of Logic, first published in 1618. A complete edition of Sanderson's works (6 vols.) was edited by William Jacobson in 1854. It includes the Life by Izaak Walton, revised and enlarged.

SANDFORD, JOHN DE (d. 1294), archbishop of Dublin, was probably an illegitimate son of the baronial leader, Gilbert Basset (d. 1241), or of his brother Fulk Basset, bishop of London from 1241 until his death in 1259, a prelate who was prominent during the troubles of Henry III.'s reign. John was a nephew of Sir Philip Basset (d. 1271), the justiciar. He first appears as an official of Henry III. in Ireland and of Edward I. in both England and Ireland; he was appointed dean of St Patrick's, Dublin, in 1275. In 1284 he was chosen archbishop of Dublin in succession to John of Darlington; some, however, objected to this choice and Sandford resigned his claim; but was elected a second time while he was in Rome, and returning to Ireland was allowed to take up the office. In 1288, during a time of great confusion, the archbishop acted as governor of Ireland. In 1290 he resigned and returned to England. Sandford served Edward I. in the great case over the succession to the Scottish throne in 1292 and also as an envoy to the German king, Adolph of Nassau, and the princes of the Empire. On his return from Germany he died at Yarmouth on the 2nd of October 1294. Sandford's elder brother, Fulk (d. 1271), was also archbishop of Dublin. He is called Fulk de Sandford and also Fulk Basset owing to his relationship to the Bassets. Having been archdeacon of Middlesex and treasurer and chancellor of St Paul's Cathedral, London, he was appointed archbishop of Dublin by Pope Alexander IV. in 1256. He took some slight part in the government of Ireland under Henry III. and died at Finglas on the 4th of May 1271.

SANDGATE, a watering-place of Kent, England, on the S.E. coast, 1 m. W. of Folkestone, on the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 2023. It is connected with Hythe, 3 m. W., by a tramway belonging to the railway company. It is included in the parliamentary borough of Hythe. Sandgate Castle was built by Henry VIII., but on the formation of a camp here in 1806 it was considerably altered. The camp of Shorncliffe lies N. of the town on a plateau.

SAND-GROUSE, the name1 by which are commonly known the members of a small group of birds frequenting sandy tracts, and having their feet more or less clothed with feathers after the fashion of grouse (q.v.), to which they were originally thought to be closely allied; the species first described were by the earlier systematists invariably referred to the genus Tetrao. Their separation therefrom is due to C. J. Temminck, who made for them a distinct genus which he called Pterocles.2 Further investigation of the osteology and pterylosis of the sand-grouse revealed still greater divergence from the normal Gallinae (to which the true grouse belong), as well as several curious resemblances to the pigeons; and in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1868 (p. 303) T. H. Huxley proposed to regard them, under the name of Pteroclomorphae, as forming a group equivalent to the Alectoromorphae and Peristeromorphae. They are now 1 It seems to have been first used by J. Latham in 1783 (Synopsis, iv. p. 751) as the direct translation of the name Tetrao arenarius given by Pallas.

He states that he published this name in 1809; but hitherto research has failed to find it used until 1815.

generally regarded as forming a separate sub-order Pterocles of Charadriiform birds, allied to pigeons (see BIRDS). The Pteroclidae consist of two genera-Pterocles, with about fifteen species, and Syrrha ptes, with two. Of the former, two species inhabit Europe, P. arenarius, the sand-grouse proper, and that which is usually called P. alchata, the pin-tailed sand-grouse. The European range of the first is practically limited to Portugal, Spain and S. Russia, while the second inhabits also the S. of France, where locally as Grandaulo, or, strange to say, Perdrix d'Angleterre. Both it is generally known by its Catalan name of Ganga, or species are also abundant in Barbary, and have been believed to extend E. through Asia to India, in most parts of which country they seem to be only winter-visitants; but in 1880 M. Bogdanow pointed out to the Academy of St Petersburg (Bulletin, xxvii. 164) a slight difference of coloration between eastern and western examples of what had hitherto passed as P. alchata; analogy would suggest that a similar difference might be found in examples of P. arenarius. India, moreover, possesses five other species of Pterocles, of which, inhabit Africa as well, and all the remaining species belong to the however, only one, P. fasciatus, is peculiar to Asia, while the others Ethiopian region-onc, P. personatus, being peculiar to Madagascar, and four occurring in or on the borders of the Cape Colony. The genus Syrrhaptes, though in general appearance resembling Pterocles, has a conformation of foot quite unique among birds, the three anterior toes being encased in a common is clothed to the claws with hairy feathers, so as to look much like podotheca," which a fingerless glove. The hind toe is wanting. The two species of Syrrhaptes are S. tibetanus-the largest sand-grouse known-inhabiting the country whence its trivial name is derived, and S. of Europe, which it occasionally invades. Though its attempts at paradoxus, ranging from N. China across Central Asia to the confines colonization in the extreme W. have failed, it would seem to have established itself in the neighbourhood of Astrakhan (Ibis, 1882, p. 220). It appears to be the "Barguerlac" of Marco Polo (ed. Yule, i. p 239); and the " Loung-Kio or" Dragon's Foot," so unscientifically described by the Abbé Huc (Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartare, i. p. 244), can scarcely be anything else than this bird. The sand-grouse assimilates in general colour to that of the ground, being above of a dull ochreous hue, more or less barred or mottled by brown intensifying into black. Lighter tints are, however, exhibited darker shades, while beneath it is frequently varied by belts of deep by some species and streaks or edgings of an almost pure white relieve the prevailing sandy or fawn-coloured hues that especially characterize the group. The sexes seem always to differ in plumage, that of is decidedly dove-like, and so is the form of the body, the long wings the male being the brightest and most diversified. The expression contributing also to that effect, so that among Anglo-Indians these birds are commonly known as rock-pigeons." The long wings, the outermost primary of which in Syrrhuptes has its shaft produced into an attenuated filament, are in all the species worked by exceedingly powerful muscles, and in several forms the middle rectrices are likewise protracted and pointed, so as to give to their wearers the name of Pin-tailed Sand-Grouse. The nest is a shallow hole in the sand. Three seems to be the regular complement of eggs, but there are writers who declare that the full number in some species is four. These eggs are almost cylindrical in the middle and nearly alike at each end, and are of a pale earthy colour, spotted, blotched or marbled with darker shades, the markings being of two kinds, one superficial and the other more deeply seated in the shell. The young are hatched fully clothed in down (P.Z.S., 1866, pl. ix. fig. 2), and appear to be capable of locomotion soon after birth. The remains of an extinct species of Pterocles, P. sepultus, intermediate apparently between P. alchata and P. gutturalis, have been recognized in the Miocene caves of the Allier by A. Milne-Edwards (Ois. foss. de la France, p. 294, pl. clxi., figs. 1-9); and, in addition to the other authorities on this very interesting group of birds already cited, reference may be made to D. G. Elliot's Study "of the Family (P.Z S., 1878, pp. 233-264) and H. F. Gadow, " On Certain Points in (A. N.) the Anatomy of Plerocles" (op. cit., 1882, pp. 312-332).

SANDHURST, a town in the Wokingham parliamentary division of Berkshire, England, 9 m. N. of Aldershot. Pop. (1901) 2386. Two miles south-east of the town, near the villages of Cambridge Town and York Town, and the railway stations of Blackwater and Camberley on the South-Eastern and Chatham and South-Western lines, is the Sandhurst Royal Military College. It was settled here in 1812, having been already removed by its founder, the duke of York, from High Wycombe, where it was opened in 1799, to Great Marlow in 1802. It stands in beautiful grounds, which contain a large lake. Wellington College station on the South-Eastern branch line to Reading, near Sandhurst itself, serves Wellington College, one of the principal modern public schools of England, founded in memory

These were separated by Bonaparte (Comptes rendus, xlii. p. 880) as a distinct genus, Pteroclurus, which later authors have justly seen no reason to adopt.

of the great duke of Wellington, and incorporated in 1853. Its primary object was the education of the sons of deceased army officers. In the vicinity is Broadmoor Prison for criminal lunatics.

SAN DIEGO, a city, port of entry and the county-seat of San Diego county, in S. California, U.S.A., on the Pacific Ocean, about 10 m. N. of the Mexican border, and about 126 m. (by rail) S.E. of Los Angeles. Pop. (1880) 2637; (1890) 16,159; (1900) 17,700, of whom 3768 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 39,578. It is served by numerous steamship lines and by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, the Los Angeles & San Diego Beach, the San Diego Southern, and the San Diego, Cuyamaca & Eastern railways. A railway between Yuma, Arizona, and San Diego was under construction in 1910. The harbour, next to that of San Francisco the best in California, has an area of some 22 sq. m. The Federal government has made various improvements in the harbour, building a jetty 7500 ft. long on Zuninga Shoal at the entrance and making a channel 225 ft. wide and 27-28 ft. deep at low tide. The city site, which is a strip of land 25 m. long and 2 to 4 m. wide, is nearly level near the bay. San Diego is the seat of a State Normal School and has a Carnegie library. There is a coaling station of the United States Navy, and the United States government maintains a garrison in Fort Rosecrans. At Coronado (pop. 1900, 935) across the bay are Coronado Beach, and the Hotel del Coronado, with fine botanical and Japanese gardens; on the beach people live in tents except in the stormier season. Within the city, on the top of Point Loma, is the Theosophical Institution of the "Universal Brotherhood." San Diego has one of the most equable climates in the world, and there are several sanatoriums here. The economic interests centre in fruit culture, especially the raising of citrus fruits and of raisin grapes. There are also warehouses, foundries, lumber yards, saw-mills and planing-mills -logs are rafted here from Washington and Oregon. National City (pop. 1900, 1086), adjoining San Diego on the S. and the S. terminus of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé system, has large interests in lemon packing and the manufacture of oil, citric acid and other lemon by-products. In 1905 the total value of the factory products of the city was $1,974,430 (194.8 % more than in 1900).

San Diego is under the commission form of government; in 1905 the city secured as a charter right the power to "recall " by petition any unsatisfactory city official and to elect another in his place, and the initiative and referendum were incorporated in the charter, but were practically inoperative for several years. By a charter amendment of 1909, the city is governed by a commission of a mayor and five councilmen, elected at large.

About 4 m. N. of the business centre of San Diego is the site of the first Spanish settlement in Upper California. It was occupied in April 1769; a Franciscan "mission" (the earliest of twenty-one established in California) was founded on the 16th of July, and a military presidio somewhat later. San Diego began the first revolution against Governor M. Victoria and Mexican authority in 1831, but was intensely loyal in opposition to Governor J. B. Alvarado and the northern towns in 1836. It was made a port of entry in 1828. In 1840 it had a population of 140. It was occupied by the American forces in July 1846, and was reoccupied in November after temporary dispossession by the Californians, no blood being shed in these disturbances. In 1850 it was incorporated as a city, but did not grow, and lost its charter in 1852. In 1867 it had only a dozen inhabitants. A land promoter, A. E. Horton (d. 1909), then laid out a new city about 3 m. S. of the old. Its population increased to 2300 in 1870, and this new San Diego was incorporated in 1872, and was made a port of entry in 1873. The old town still has many ruined adobe houses, and the old "mission" is fairly well preserved. The prosperity of 1867-1873 was followed by a disastrous crash in 1873-1874, and little progress was made until 1884, when San Diego was reached by the Santa Fé railway system. After 1900 the growth of the city was again very rapid.

SANDOMIR, or SEDOMIERZ, a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Radom, 140 m. S.S.E. of Warsaw by river

and on the left bank of the Vistula, opposite the confluence of the San. Pop. (1881) 6265, or, including suburbs, 14,710; (1897) 6534. It is one of the oldest towns of Poland, being mentioned as early as 1079; from 1139 to 1332 it was the chief town of the principality of the same name. In 1240, and again in 1259, it was burned by the Mongols. Under Casimir III. it reached a high degree of prosperity. In 1429 it was the seat of a congress for the establishment of peace with Lithuania, and in 1570 the Consensus Sandomiriensis "" was held here for uniting the Lutherans, Calvinists and Moravian Brethren. Subsequent wars, and especially the Swedish (e.g. in 1655) ruined the town even more than did numerous conflagrations, and in the second part of the 18th century it had only about 2000 inhabitants. Here in 1702 the Polish supporters of Augustus of Saxony banded together against Charles XII. of Sweden. The beautiful cathedral was built between 1120 and 1191; it was rebuilt in stone in 1360, and is one of the oldest monuments of Polish architecture. Two of the churches are fine relics of the 13th century. The castle, built by Casimir III. (14th century), still exists. The city gives title to an episcopal see (Roman Catholic).

SANDOWAY, a town and district in the Arakan division of Lower Burma. The town (pop. 1901, 12,845) is very ancient, and is said to have been at one time the capital of Arakan. The district has an area of 3784 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 90,927, showing an increase of 16% in the decade. The country is mountainous, the Arakan range sending out spurs which reach the coast. Some of the peaks in the N. attain 4000 and more ft. The streams are only mountain torrents to within a few miles of the coast; the mouth of the Khwa forms a good anchorage for vessels of from 9 to 10 ft. draught. The rocks in the Arakan range and its spurs are metamorphic, and comprise clay, slates, ironstone and indurated sandstone; towards the S., ironstone, trap and rocks of basaltic character are common; veins of steatite and white fibrous quartz are also found. The rainfall in 1905 was 230.49 in. Except a few acres of tobacco, all the cultivation is rice. Sandoway was ceded to the British, with the rest of Arakan, by the treaty of Yandabo in 1826.

SANDOWN, a watering-place in the Isle of Wight, England, 6 m. S. of Ryde by rail. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5006. It is beautifully situated on rising ground overlooking Sandown Bay and the English Channel, on the S.E. coast of the island. There is a wide expanse of sandy shore, and bathing is excellent.

SANDPIPER (Ger. Sandpfeifer), the name applied to nearly all the smaller kinds of the group Limicolae which are not Plovers (q.v.) or Snipes (q.v.), but may be said to be intermediate between them. According to F. Willughby in 1676 it was the name given by Yorkshiremen to the bird popularly known in England as the "Summer-Snipe," the Tringa hypoleucos of Linnaeus and the Totanus hypoleucus of later writers, but probably even in Willughby's time the name was of much wider signification. Placed by most systematists in the family Scolopacidae, the birds commonly called Sandpipers seem to form three sections, which have been often regarded as Subfamilies-Totaninae, Tringinae and Phalaropodinae, the last indeed in some classifications taking the higher rank of a Family-Phalaropodidae. This section comprehends three species only, known as Phalaropes or swimming sandpipers, which are distinguished by the membranes that fringe their toes, in two of the species forming marginal lobes,' and by the character of their lower plumage, which is as close as that of a duck. The most obvious distinctions between Totaninae and Tringinae may be said to lie in the acute or blunt form of the tip of the bill (with which is associated a less or greater development of the sensitive nerves running almost if not quite to its extremity, and therefore greatly influencing the mode of feeding) and in the style of plumagethe Tringinae, with blunt and flexible bills, mostly assuming a summer-dress in which some tint of chestnut or reddish-brown

1 These are Phalaropus fulicarius and P. (or Lobipes) hyperboreus, and were thought by some of the older writers to be allied to the natives of the higher parts of the N. hemisphere, and the last is Coots (q.v.). The third species is P. (or Steganopus) wilsoni. All are especially American, though perhaps a straggler to Europe.

is prevalent, while the Totaninae, with acute and stiffer bills, display no such lively colours. Furthermore, the Tringinae, except when breeding, frequent the sea-shore much more than do the Totaninae. To the latter belong the Greenshank (q.v.) and Redshank (q.v.), as well as the Common Sandpiper, the "Summer-Snipe" above-mentioned, a bird hardly exceeding a skylark in size, and of very general distribution throughout the British Islands, but chiefly frequenting clear streams, especially those with a gravelly or rocky bottom, and most generally breeding on the beds of sand or shingle on their banks. It usually makes its appearance in May. The nest, in which four eggs are laid with their pointed ends meeting in its centre (as is usual among Limicoline birds), is seldom, far from the water's edge, and the eggs, as well as the newly-hatched and down-covered young, closely resemble the surrounding pebbles. The Common Sandpiper is found over the greater part of the Old World. In summer it is the most abundant bird of its kind in the extreme N. of Europe, and it extends across Asia to Japan. In winter it makes its way to India, Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. In America its place is taken by a closely kindred species, which is said to have also occurred in England-T. macularius, the “ Peet weet," or Spotted Sandpiper, so called from its usual cry, or from the almost circular marks which spot its lower plumage. In habits it is very similar to its congener of the Old World, and in winter it migrates to the Antilles and to Central and South America.

Of other Totaninae, one of the most remarkable is that to which the inappropriate name of Green Sandpiper has been assigned, the Tolanus or Helodromas ochropus of ornithologists, which differs (so far as is known) from all others of the group both in its osteology 2 and mode of nidification, the hen laying her eggs in the deserted nests of other birds,-Jays, Thrushes or Pigeons,-but nearly always at some height (from 3 to 30 ft.) from the ground (Proc. Zool. Society, 1863, pp. 529-532). This species occurs in England the whole year round, and is presumed to have bred there, though the fact has never been satisfactorily proved, and knowledge of its erratic habits comes from naturalists in Pomerania and Sweden. This sandpiper is characterized by its dark upper plumage, which contrasts strongly with the white of the lower part of the back and gives the bird as it flies much the look of a very large house-martin. The so-called wood-sandpiper, T. glareola, which, though 'much less common, is known to have bred in England, has a considerable resemblance to the species last mentioned, but can be distinguished by the feathers of the axillary plume being white barred with greyish-black, while in the green sandpiper they are greyish-black barred with white. It is an abundant bird in most parts of northern Europe, migrating in winter very far to the southward. Of the section Tringinae the best known are the Knot (q.r.) and the Dunlin, T. alpina. The latter, often also called Ox-bird, Plover's Page, Purre and Stint,-names which it shares with some other species, not only breeds commonly on many of the elevated moors of Britain, but in autumn resorts in countless flocks to the shores. In winter of a nearly uniform ash-grey above and white beneath, in summer the feathers of the back are black, with deep rust-coloured edges, and a broad black belt occupies the breast. The Dunlin varies considerably in size, examples from N. America being almost always recognizable from their greater bulk, while in Europe there appears to be a smaller race which has received the name of T. schinzi. In the breeding-season the male Dunlin utters a most peculiar and farsounding whistle, somewhat resembling the continued ringing of a high-toned musical bell.

Next to the Dunlin and Knot the commonest British Tringinae are the Sanderling, Calidris arenaria (distinguished from every other bird of the group by wanting a hind toe), the Purple Sandpiper, T. striata or maritima, the Curlew-Sandpiper, T. subarquata and the Little and Temminck's Stints, T. minuta and T. temmincki. T. minutillo, the American stint, is darker, with olive feet, and ranges from the Arctic New World to Brazil. T. fuscicollis, Bonaparte's sandpiper, with white upper tail-coverts inhabits Arctic America, but reaches the greater part of South America in winter, whilst T. bairdi, with brownish median tail-coverts, extends over nearly all North America, breeding towards the north.

1 There are no English words adequate to express these two sections. By some British writers the Tringinae have been indicated as" Stints, a term cognate with Stunt and wholly inapplicable to many of them, while American writers have restricted to them the name of "Sandpiper," and call the Totaninae, to which that name is especially appropriate," Willets."

It possesses only a single pair of posterior" emarginations" on its sternum, in this respect resembling the Ruff (q..). Among the Plovers and Snipes other similarly exceptional cases may be found.

The broad-billed sandpiper, T. platyrhyncha, of the Old World, section. The spoon-billed sandpiper, Eurinorhynchus pygmaeus, seems to be more snipe-like than any that are usually assigned to this breeds in north-eastern Asia and N.W. America, and ranges to China and Burma in winter. (A. N.)

SANDRART, JOACHIM VON (1606-1688), German arthistorian and painter, was born at Frankfort, and after studying in Germany, Holland and England, went in 1627 to Italy, where he became famous as a portrait-painter. He subsequently revisited Holland and then settled in Nuremberg, where he died. His " Peace-Banquet, 1649" is in the town hall there. He is best known as the author of books on art, some of them in Latin, and especially for his historical work, the Deutsche Akademie (1675-1679), of which there is a modern edition by Sponsel (1896).

SANDRINGHAM, a village in the N.W. parliamentary division of Norfolk, England, 3 m. from the shore of the Wash, and 2} from Wolferton station on the Great Eastern railway. Sandringham House was a country seat of King Edward VII., acquired by him when Prince of Wales by purchase in 1861. Ten years later the mansion then existing was replaced by the present picturesque building in brick and stone in Elizabethan style. The estate, of some 7000 acres, includes a park of 200 acres, entered by fine wrought iron gates constructed at Norwich. The church of St Mary Magdalene contains many memorials of the royal family.

SANDSTONE, in petrology, a consolidated sand rock built up of sand grains held together by a cementing substance. The size of the particles varies within wide limits and in the same rock may be uniform or irregular: the coarser sandstones are called grits, and form a transition to conglomerates (q.v.), while the finer grained usually contain an admixture of mud or clay and pass over by all stages into arenaceous shales and clay rocks. Greywackes (q.v.) are sandstones belonging to the older geological systems, such as the Silurian or Cambrian, usually of brown or grey colour and very impure.

The minerals of sandstones are the same as those of sands. Quartz is the commonest; with it often occurs a considerable amount of felspar, and usually also some white mica. Chlorite, argillaceous matter, calcite and iron oxides, are exceedingly common in sandstones, and in some varieties are important constituents; garnet, tourmaline, zircon, epidote, rutile and ing to their composition we may distinguish siliceous sandstones anatase are often present though rarely in any quantity. Accord(some of these are so pure that they contain 99% of silica, e.g. Craigleith stone and some gannisters), felspathic sandstones or arkoses (less durable and softer than the siliceous sandstones); micaceous sandstones, with flakes of mica lying along the bedding planes; argillaceous sandstones; ferruginous sandstones, brown or red in colour with the sand grains coated with red haematite or brownish yellow limonite; impure sandstones, usually in the main consisting of quartz with a large addition of other minerals.

The cementing material is often fine chalcedonic silica, and exists in such small quantity that it is difficult to recognize even with the microscope. In some of the cherty sandstones of the Greensand the chalcedonic cement is much more abundant: these rocks also

contain rounded grains of glauconite, to which they owe their green colour. Crystalline silica (quartz) is deposited interstitially in some sandstones, often in regular parallel crystalline growth on the original sand grains, and when there are cavities or fissures in the rock may show the development of regular crystalline facets. By this process the rock becomes firmly compacted, and is then described as a quartzite (o.v.). A calcareous cement is almost equally common: it may be derived from particles of shells or other calcareous fossils originally mixed with the sand and subsequently dissolved and redeposited in the spaces between the other grains. In Fontainebleau sandstone and some British Secondary rocks the calcite is in large crystalline masses, which when broken show plane cleavages mottled with small rounded sand grains; in the French rock external rhombohedral faces are present and the crystals may be of considerable size. Many of the British Jurassic and Cretaceous sandstones (e.g. Kentish Rag, Spilsby Sandstone) are of this calcareous type. In ferruginous sandstones the iron oxides usually form only a thin pellicle coating each grain, but sometimes, in the greensands, are more abundant, especially in concretionary masses or segregations. In argillaceous sandstones the fine clayey material, compacted by pressure, holds the sand grains together, and rocks of this kind are

soft and break up easily when exposed to the weather or submitted to crushing tests. Among other cementing materials may be mentioned, dolomite, barytes, fluorite and phosphate of lime, but these are only locally found.

Many sandstones contain concretions which may be several feet in diameter, and are sometimes set free by weathering or when the rock is split open by a blow. Most frequently these are siliceous, and then they interfere with the employment of the rock for certain purposes, as for making grindstones or for buildings of fine dressed stone. Argillaceous concretions or clay galls are almost equally common, and nodules of pyrites or marcasite; the latter weather to a brown rusty powder, and are most undesirable in building stones. Phosphatic, ferruginous, barytic and calcareous concretions occur also in some of the rocks of this group. We may also mention the presence of lead ores (the Eifel, Germany), copper ores (Chessy and some British Triassic sandstones) and manganese oxides. In some districts (e.g. Alsace) bituminous sandstones occur, while in N. America many Devonian sandstones contain petroleum. Many Coal-Measures sandstones contain remains of plants preserved as black impressions.

The colours of sandstones arise mostly from their impurities; pure siliceous and calcareous sandstones are white, creamy or pale

yellow (from small traces of iron oxides). Black colours are due to coal or manganese dioxide; red to haematite (rarely to copper oxide); yellow to limonite, green to glauconite. Those which contain clay, fragments of shale, &c., are often grey (e.g. the Pennant Grit of S. Wales). Sandstones are very extensively worked, mostly by quarries but sometimes by mines, in all districts where they occur and are used for a large variety of purposes. Quarrying is facilitated by the presence of two systems of joints, developed approximately in equal perfection, nearly at right angles to one another and perpendicular to the bedding planes. Sometimes this jointing determines the weathering of the rock into square pillar-like forms or into mural scenery (eg. the Quader Sandstein of Germany). As building stones sandstones are much in favour, especially in the Carboniferous districts of Britain, where they can readily be obtained. They have the advantage of being durable, strong and readily dressed. They are usually laid "on the bed," that is to say, with their bedding surfaces horizontal and their edges exposed. The finer kinds of sandstone are often sawn, not hewn or trimmed with chisels. Pure siliceous sandstones are the most durable, but are often very expensive to dress and are not obtainable in many places. Sandstones are also used for grindstones and for millstones. For engineering purposes, such as dams, piers, docks and bridges, crystalline rocks, such as granite, are often preferred as being obtainable in larger blocks and having a higher crushing strength. Very pure siliceous sandstones (such as the gannisters of the north of England) may be used for lining furnaces, hearths, &c. As sandstones are always porous, they do not take a good polish and are not used as ornamental stones, but this property makes them absorb large quantities of water, and consequently they are often important sources of water supply (e.g. the water-stones of the Trias of the English Midlands). Silver is found in beds of sandstone in Utah, lead near Kommern in Prussia, and copper at Chessy near Lyons. (J. S. F.)

SANDUR, or SUNDOOR, a petty state of S. India, surrounded by the Madras district of Bellary. Area, 161 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 11,200; estimated revenue, £3500. The raja is a Mahratta of the Ghorpade family. On the western border is a hill range, which contains the military sanatorium of Ramandrug. Manganese and hematite iron ore have been found, both of unusual purity. SANDUSKY, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Erie county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Sandusky Bay, an arm of Lake Erie, about 56 m. W. by S. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890), 18,471; (1900), 19,664, of whom 4002 were foreign-born and 295 were negroes; (1910 U.S. census) 19,989. Sandusky is served by the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & Saint Louis, the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore & Ohio, and the Lake Erie & Western railways, by several interurban electric lines, and by steamboats to the principal ports on the Great Lakes. Among the public buildings are the United States Government Building and the Court House. The city has a Carnegie library (1897), and is the seat of the Lake Laboratory (biological) of the Ohio State University, and of the Ohio Soldiers' and Sailors' Home (26 buildings).

At the entrance to Sandusky Bay is Cedar Point, with a beach for bathing. At the mouth of the harbour is Johnson's Island, where many Confederate prisoners were confined during the Civil War. A few miles farther N. are several fishing resorts, among them Lakeside and Put-in-Bay; at the latter the United States government maintains a fish hatchery, and out of the bay Oliver Hazard Perry and his fleet sailed on the morning of the 10th of September 1813 for the Battle of Lake Erie. Sandusky has a good harbour, which has been greatly improved by the United States government;

and its trade in coal, lumber, stone, cement, fish, fruit, ice, wine and beer is extensive; in 1908 the value of its exports, chiefly to Canada, was $580,191 and the value of its imports $57,762. The value of its factory products increased from $2,833,506 in 1900 to $4,878,563 in 1905, or 72.2%. English traders were at Sandusky as early as 1749, and by 1763 a fort had been erected; but on the 16th of May of that year, during the Pontiac rising, the Wyandot Indians burned the fort. The first permanent settlement was made in 1817, and in 1845 Sandusky was chartered as a city.

SANDWICH, EDWARD MONTAGU, or MOUNTAGU, IST EARL OF (1625-1672), English admiral, was a son of Sir Sidney Montagu (d. 1644) of Hinchinbrook, who was a brother of Henry Montagu, 1st earl of Manchester, and of Edward Montagu, 1st Lord Montagu of Boughton. He was born on the 27th of July 1625, and although his father was a royalist, he himself joined the parliamentary party at the outbreak of the Civil War. In 1643 he raised a regiment, with which he distinguished himself at the battles of Marston Moor and Naseby and at the siege of Bristol. Though one of Cromwell's intimate friends, he took little part in public affairs until 1653, when he was appointed a member of the council of state. His career as a seaman began in 1656, when he was made a general-at-sea, his colleague being Robert Blake. Having taken some part in the operations against Dunkirk in 1657, he was chosen a member of Cromwell's House of Lords, and in 1659 he was sent by Richard Cromwell with a fleet to arrange a peace between Sweden and Denmark. After the fall of Richard he resigned his command and joined with those who were frightened by the prospect of anarchy in bringing about the restoration of Charles II. Again general-at-sea early in 1660, Montagu carried the fleet over to the side of the exiled king, and was entrusted with the duty of fetching Charles from Holland. He was then made a knight of the Garter, and in July 1660 was created earl of Sandwich. His subsequent naval duties included the conveyance of several royal exiles to England and arranging for the cession of Tangier and for the payment of £300,000, the dowry of Catherine of Braganza.

During the war with the Dutch in 1664-1665 Sandwich commanded a squadron under the duke of York and distinguished himself in the battle off Lowestoft on the 3rd of June 1665. When the duke retired later in the same year he became commander-inchief, and he directed an unsuccessful attack on some Dutch merchant ships which were sheltering in the Norwegian port of Bergen; however, on his homeward voyage he captured some valuable prizes, about which a great deal of trouble arose on his return. Personal jealousies were intermingled with charges of irregularities in dealing with the captured property, and the upshot was that Sandwich was dismissed from his command, but as a solatium was sent to Madrid as ambassador extraordinary. He arranged a treaty with Spain, and în 1670 was appointed president of the council of trade and plantations. When the war with the Dutch was renewed in 1672 Sandwich again commanded a squadron under the duke of York, and during the fight in Southwold Bay on the 28th of May 1672, his ship, the " Royal George," after having taken a conspicuous part in the action, was set on fire and was blown up. The earl's body was found some days later and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Edward (d. 1688) the eldest of his six sons, succeeded to the titles; another son, John Montagu (c. 1655-1728) was dean of Durham.

Lord Sandwich claimed to have a certain knowledge of science, and his translation of a Spanish work on the Art of Metals appeared in 1674. Many of his letters and papers are in the British Museum, the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and in the possession of the present earl of Sandwich. He is mentioned very frequently in the Diary of his kinsman, Samuel Pepys. See also J. Charnock, Biographia Navalis, vol. i. (1794); John Campbell, Lives of the British Admirals, vol. ii. (1779); and R. Southey, Lives of the British Admirals, vol. v. (1840).

SANDWICH, JOHN MONTAGU, 4TH EARL OF (1718-1792), was born on the 3rd of November 1718 and succeeded his grandfather, Edward, the 3rd earl, in the earldom in 1729. Educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he spent some time in travelling, and on his return to England in 1739 he took his