Les Finances de la France sous la troisième république (1898- | with several old buildings, notably the Hart mansion built about 1901). 1783 by Captain Elisha Hart, whose seven daughters here enterSee Georges Michel, Léon Say (Paris, 1899); Georges Picot, Léontained Washington Irving, J. R. Drake and Fitz-Greene Halleck. Say, notice historique (Paris, 1901), with a bibliography. SAY, a town on the right bank of the river Niger in 13° 4' N. and 2° 30' E., in the French colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. In the agreement of 1890 between Great Britain and France for the delimitation of their respective spheres of influence in West Africa, Say was taken as the western end of an imaginary line which ran eastward to Barrua on Lake Chad. To the north the "light soil' of the Sahara-a phrase used by Lord Salisbury in explaining the nature of the agreement in the House of Lords-was recognized as French; to the south the Sokoto empire (northern Nigeria) fell to Great Britain. By the convention of 1898 Say, however, and a considerable tract of territory south and east of the town were ceded to France. (See AFRICA, § 5.) Com. Isaac Hull and his nephew Joseph Bartine Hull married two of the daughters, and the younger of these in 1874 left the house to the township of Old Saybrook, which refused the gift. Fenwick (pop. in 1910, 34), the smallest borough in the state, is a part of Old Saybrook township, in which there are summer residences. The first settlement was made on Saybrook Point late in 1635 by John Winthrop, commissioned governor for one year by the company of which the principal shareholders were Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, Sir Richard Saltonstall, John Pym and John Hampden, and which had a grant from the earl of Warwick. The English settlers forestalled the Dutch, who attempted to land here in November. A palisade was built across the narrowest part of the neck of the point by Lion Gardiner, who built a fort (burned in 1647) and planned a settlement, to which for a time it was thought Lord Saye and Sele, Lord Brooke, John Hampden, Oliver Cromwell, and other independents would immigrate. Gardiner called the place Saybrook from the names of its principal proprietors. He had practical control until 1639, when he was displaced by George Fenwick (d. 1657), whose wife, called Lady Fenwick (she was the widow of Sir John Botelier), died here in 1646, and who in 1644 sold to Connecticut the proprietors' rights. SAYAD, a descendant of Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, by Fatima, Mahomet's daughter. Many of the Pathan tribes in the North-West Frontier Province of India, such as the Bangash of Kohat and the Mishwanis of the Hazara border, claim Sayad origin. The apostles who completed the conversion of the Pathans to Islam were called Sayads if they came from the west, and Sheikhs if they came from the east; hence doubtless many false claims to Sayad origin. In Afghanistan the Sayads uave much of the commerce in their hands, as their holy character allows them to pass unharmed where other Pathans would being was erected in 1647, and in 1680-1681 another, in which in murdered. The Sayads gave a short-lived dynasty to India, which reigned at Delhi during the first half of the 15th century. Their name again figures in Indian history at the break up of the Mogul empire, when two Sayad brothers created and dethroned emperors at their will (1714-1720). In 1901 the total number of Sayads in all India was returned at 1,339,734. They include many well-known and influential families. The first Mahom-organized under it were declared to be established by law. This medan appointed to the Council of India and the first appointed to the Privy Council were both Sayads. In 1646 the First Church of Christ was organized; a church buildSeptember 1708, at the call of the General Assembly, met a Congrefession of Faith and the Heads of Agreement adopted in England in gational Synod of 16 members which reaffirmed the Savoy Con1691 by Congregationalists and Presbyterians, and drew up the Saybrook Platform of discipline, providing for the promotion of harmony and order, the regular introduction of candidates into the ministry and the establishment of associations and consociations, the latter being tribunals with final and appellate jurisdiction. This platform was approved by the General Assembly, and churches establishment continued in full force until 1784. A granite boulder (1901) marks the site of the first home of Yale University, established here in 1701 as the Collegiate School of Connecticut; until 1716, when it was removed to New Haven, most of the school's commencements were held here and all its exercises after 1707-1708, before which time most of the actual teaching was done in Killingworth, now Clinton, Connecticut. Saybrook was the home of David Bushnell (1742-1824), who devised in 1776 a submarine torpedo and a tortoise-shaped diving boat, the " American Turtle," which were tried without success against the British in the War of American Independence. ships of Old Saybrook, Westbrook (1840), Essex (1854, taken from The original township of Saybrook contained the present townOld Saybrook), Saybrook and Chester (1836), and, on the east side of the river, parts of the present Lyme (1665), Old Lyme (1855, from Lyme), and East Lyme (1839, from Lyme and Waterford). SAYAN MOUNTAINS, a range of Asia, forming the eastern continuation of the Sailughem or Altai range, stretching from 89 E. to 106° E. Orographically they are the N. border-ridge of the plateau of N.W. Mongolia, and separate that region from Siberia. The geology is imperfectly known. While the general elevation is 7000 to 9000 ft., the individual peaks, consisting largely of granites and metamorphic slates, reach altitudes of 10,000 ft. and 11,450 ft., e.g. in Munko Sardyk; while the principal passes lie 6000 to 7500 ft. above the sea, e.g. Muztagh 7480 ft., Mongol 6500 ft., Tenghyz 7480 ft. and Obo-sarym 6100 ft. In 92° E. the system is pierced by the Bel-kem or upper Yenisei, and in 106°, at its eastern extremity, it terminates above the depression of the Selenga-Orkhon valley. From the Mongolian plateau the ascent is on the whole gentle, but from the plains of Siberia it is much steeper, despite the fact that the range is masked by a broad belt of subsidiary ranges of an Alpine character, e.g. the Usinsk, Oya, Tunka, Kitoi and Byelaya ranges. Between the breach of the Yenisei and the Kosso-gol (lake) in 100° 30' E. the system bears also the name of Yerghik-taiga. The flora is on the whole poor, although the higher regions carry good forests of larch, pitch pine, cedar, birch and alder, with rhodo-e.g. BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA) it is impossible to overestimate dendrons and species of Berberis and Ribes. Lichens and mosses clothe many of the boulders that are scattered over the upper slopes. SAYBROOK, a township of Middlesex county, Connecticut, U.S.A., at the mouth and on the W. bank of the Connecticut river, about 100 m. E.N.E. of New York City and about 40 m. S. of Hartford. Pop. (1900) 1634; (1910) 1907. The post office of the township is named Deep River. Mainly confined to Saybrook Point, jutting out into the river, is the township of Old Saybrook (pop. in 1910, 1516), separated from the township of Saybrook in 1852, but actually the mother colony; its post village is called Saybrook. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, the Valley branch of which here separates from the Shore Line branch. It is a beautiful place, SAYCE, ARCHIBALD HENRY (1846- ), British Orientalist, was born at Shirehampton on the 25th of September 1846, son of the Rev. H. S. Sayce, vicar of Caldicot. He was educated at Bath, and at Queen's College, Oxford, of which he became fellow in 1869. In 1891 he was elected professor of Assyriology at Oxford. He threw his whole energies into the study of biblical and other Oriental subjects, and though his conclusions have in a number of cases been considerably modified (e.g. in chronology and transliteration) by the work of other scholars (see, his services to Oriental scholarship. He travelled widely in the East and continued in later life annual trips up the Nile. An interesting example of the importance of his pioneer work is the fact that there has been a strong tendency to revert to the views which he advanced on the question of the Hittites in his early Oxford lectures. He was a member of the Old Testament Revision Company in 1874-1884; deputy professor of comparative philology in Oxford 1876-1890; Hibbert Lecturer 1887; Gifford Lecturer 1900-1902. The sale was probably illegal as it was never confirmed; and it does not appear that the earl of Warwick had ever had title to the land to convey to the company of which Fenwick was agent. For a conjectural explanation of the history of the Warwick patent see Forrest Morgan, "The Solution of an Old Historic Mystery," in the Magazine of History for July, August, September and October 1909. Of his numerous publications the following are of special im- | impudence or of anger. Pitt, who showed no wish to help portance-Assyrian Grammar for Comparative Purposes (1872); literature or art in any other case, provided Sayer with a place Principles of Comparative Philology (1874); Babylonian Literature (1877); Introduction to the Science of Language (1879); Monuments as marshal of the Exchequer court. He died in Curzon Street, of the Hittites (1881); Herodotus i-iii. (1883); Ancient Empires of Mayfair, on the 20th of April 1823. the East (1884); Introduction to Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther (1885); Assyria (1885); Hibbert Lectures on Babylonian Religion (1887); The Hittites (1889); Races of the Old Testament (1891); Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments (1894); Patriarchal Palestine (1895); The Egypt of the Hebrews and Herodotus (1895); Early History of the Hebrews (1897); Israel and the Surrounding Nations (1898); Babylonians and Assyrians (1900); Egyptian and Babylonian Religion (1903); Archaeology of the Cuneiform Inscr. (1907). He also contributed important articles to the 9th, 10th and 11th editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica and edited a number of Oriental works. SAYE AND SELE, WILLIAM FIENNES, IST VISCOUNT (15821662), was the only son of Richard Fiennes, 7th Baron Saye and Sele, and was descended from James Fiennes, Lord Saye and Sele, who was lord chamberlain and lord treasurer under Henry VI. and was beheaded by the rebels under Jack Cade on the 4th of July 1450. Born on the 28th of May 1582 Fiennes, like many of his family, was educated at New College, Oxford; he succeeded to his father's barony in 1613, and in parliament opposed the policy of James I., undergoing a brief imprisonment for objecting to a benevolence in 1662; and he showed great animus towards Lord Bacon. In 1624, owing probably to his temporary friendship with the duke of Buckingham, he was advanced to the rank of a viscount, but notwithstanding this he remained during the early parliaments of Charles I. champion of the popular cause, and was in Clarendon's words "the oracle of those who were called Puritans in the worst sense, and steered all their counsels and designs." Afterwards his energies found a new outlet in helping to colonize Providence Island, and in interesting himself in other and similar enterprises in America. Although Saye resisted the levy of ship-money, he accompanied Charles on his march against the Scots in 1639; but, with only one other peer, he refused to take the oath binding him to fight for the king to "the utmost of my power and hazard of my life." Then Charles I. sought to win his favour by making him a privy councillor and master of the court of wards. When the Civil War broke out, however, Saye was on the committee of safety, was made lordlieutenant of Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire and Cheshire, and raising a regiment occupied Oxford. He was a member of the committee of both kingdoms; was mainly responsible for passing the self-denying ordinance through the House of Lords; and in 1647 stood up for the army in its struggle with the parliament. In 1648, both at the treaty of Newport and elsewhere, Saye was anxious that Charles should come to terms, and he retired into private life after the execution of the king, becoming a privy councillor again upon the restoration of Charles II. He died at his residence, Broughton Castle near Banbury, on the 14th of April 1662. On several occasions Saye outwitted the advisers of Charles I. by his strict compliance with legal forms. He was a thorough aristocrat, and his ideas for the government of colonies in America included the establishment of an hereditary aristocracy. His eldest son James (c. 1603-1674) succeeded him as 2nd viscount; other sons were the parliamentarians Nathaniel Fiennes (q.v.) and John Fiennes. The viscounty of Saye and Sele became extinct in 1781, and the barony is now held by the descendants of John Twisleton (d. 1682) and his wife Elizabeth (d. 1674), a daughter of the 2nd viscount. Saybrook (q.v.) in Connecticut is named after Viscount Saye and Lord Brooke. SAYER (or SAYERS), JAMES (1748-1823), English caricaturist, was a native of Yarmouth, and son of a merchant captain. He began as clerk in an attorney's office, and was for a time a member of the borough council. In 1780 the death of his father put him in possession of a small fortune, and he came to London. As a political caricaturist he was a supporter of William Pitt. His plate of "Carlo Khan's triumphal entry into Leadenhall Street was allowed by C. J. Fox, against whom it was directed, to have damaged him severely in public opinion. Indeed Sayer was always at his best when attacking Fox, whose strongly marked features he rendered with remarkable power, and always so as to make them convey expressions of defiant Sayer's "Carlo Khan" has been frequently reproduced. But he can only be judged with confidence after examining the collection in the British Museum, or other public libraries. His drawings, made originally with pencil on oil paper, were etched for him by the Brethertons. They were then sold in collections of the size of a large octavo copybook, under such titles as Illustrious Heads (1794) or Outlines of the Opposition (1795). Sayer left a complete gallery of small full-length pictures of the public men of his time, slightly caricatured. In his great plates he is inferior to Gillray, and he never has the grace of Rowlandson, but he is less exaggerated than either, and nearer the truth. SAYERS, TOM (1826-1865), English pugilist, was born at Brighton on the 25th of May 1826. By trade a bricklayer, he began his career as a prize fighter in 1849 and won battle after battle, his single defeat being at the hands of Nat Langham in October 1853. In 1857 he gained the championship. His fight with the American, John C. Heenan, the Benicia Boy, a much heavier man than himself, is perhaps the most famous in the history of the English prize ring. It took place at Farnborough on the 17th of April 1860 and lasted two hours and six minutes, thirty-seven rounds being fought. After Sayers's right arm had been injured the crowd pressed into the ring and the fight was declared a draw. £3000 was raised by public subscription for Sayers, who withdrew from the ring and died on the 8th of November 1865. The champion was 5 ft. 8 in. in height and his fighting weight was under 11 stone. An account of the fight between Sayers and Heenan is given by Frederick LockerLampson in My Confidences (1896). SAYRE, a borough of Bradford county, Pennsylvania, U. S. A., on the North Branch of the Susquehanna river, about 95 m. (by rail) N.N.W. of Wilkes-Barré, and just S. of the New York state boundary. Pop. (1900) 5243 (337 foreign-born); (1910) 6426. Sayre is served by the main line and by a branch of the Lehigh Valley railway, and is connected by electric railway with Waverly, New York, and with the adjacent borough of Athens, Pennsylvania (pop. in 1910, 3796), which manufactures furniture, carriages and wagons. Sayre, Athens, South Waverly and Waverly form virtually one industrial community. The borough of Sayre is the seat of the Robert Packer Hospital (1885) and has two parks. It is the trade centre of an agricultural and dairying region, and has metal works and other factories; but its industrial importance is due primarily to the locomotive and car shops of the Lehigh Valley railway. It was named in honour of Robert Heysham Sayre (1824-1907), long chiefengineer of this railway. Sayre was settled in 1880 and was incorporated as a borough in 1891. SAYYID AHMAD KHAN, SIR (1817-1898), Mahommedan educationist and reformer, was born at Delhi, India, in 1817. He belonged to a family which had come to India with the Mahommedan conquest, and had held important offices under the Mogul emperors. Although his imperfect acquaintance with English prevented his attainment of higher office than that of a judge of a small cause court, he earned the title of the recognized leader of the Mahommedan community. To the British he rendered loyal service, and when the mutiny reached Bijnor in Rohilkand in May 1857 the British residents owed their lives to his courage and tact. His faithfulness to his religion was pronounced, and in 1876 he defended the cause of Islam in A Series of Essays on Mahommed, written in London. He used these advantages to act as interpreter between the Mahommedans and their rulers, and to rouse his co-religionists to a sense of the benefits of modern education. The task was no light one; for during the first half of the 19th century the Mahommedans had kept themselves aloof from English educa tion, and therefore from taking their proper part in the British administration, being content to study Persian and Arabic in their own mosques. Sayyid Ahmad set himself to alter their resolution. He established a translation society, which became the Scientific Society of Aligarh. He wrote letters from England to draw the hearts of the East to the West. In 1873 he founded the Mahommedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, and raised | but not knowing Porsena by sight, he slew his secretary by funds for the buildings of which Lord Lytton laid the foundation- mistake. Before the royal tribunal Mucius declared that he stone. He stimulated a similar movement elsewhere, and among was one of 300 noble youths who had sworn to take the king s other cities Karachi, Bombay and Hyderabad caught the life, and that he had been chosen by lot to make the attempt infection of his spirit. Thus he effected a revolution in the first. Threatened with death or torture, Mucius thrust his attitude of Mahommedans towards modern education. He was right hand into the fire blazing upon an altar, and held it there made K.C.S.I., and became a member of the legislative councils until it was consumed. The king, deeply impressed and dreading of India and Allahabad, and of the education commission. a further attempt upon his life, ordered Mucius to be liberated, He died at Aligarh on the 2nd of March 1898. made peace with the Romans and withdrew his forces. Mucius was rewarded with a grant of land beyond the Tiber, known as the "Mucia Prata " in the time of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and received the name of Scaevola (" left-handed "). Dionysius says nothing of the incident of the fire, and attributes Porsena's alarm partly to the loss of a band of marauders in an ambuscade. The story is presumably an attempt to explain the name Scaevola, coloured by national and family vanity (Livy ii. 12; Dion. Halic. v. 27-30). The Mucius of the legend is described as a patrician; the following were undoubtedly plebeians. 2. PUBLIUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, Roman orator and jurist, consul 133 B.C. during the time of the Gracchan disturbances. He was not opposed to moderate reforms, and refused to use violence against Tiberius Gracchus, although called upon in the senate "to protect the state and put down the tyrant." After the murder of Gracchus, however, he expressed his approval of the act. He was an opponent of the younger Scipio Africanus, for which he was attacked by the satirist Lucilius (Persius i. 115; Juvenal i. 154). In 130 he succeeded his brother Mucianus as pontifex maximus. During his tenure of office he published a digest in 80 books of the official annals kept by himself and his predecessors, which were afterwards discontinued as unnecessary, their place being taken by the works of private annalists. He was chiefly distinguished for his knowledge of law, which he held to be indispensable to a successful pontifex. Cicero frequently mentions him as a lawyer of repute, and he is cited several times by the jurists whose works were used in the compilation of the Digest. He was also a famous player at ball and the game called Duodecim Scripta; after he had lost a game, he was able to recall the moves and throws in their order.1 See Lieut.-Colonel G. F. I. Graham, The Life and Work of Sir Saiyad Ahmed Khan (1885). (W. L.-W.) SBEITLA (anc. Sufetula), a ruined city of Tunisia, 66 m. S.W. of Kairawan. Long buried beneath the sand, this is the most beautiful and extensive of the Roman cities in the regency. It stands at the foot of a hill by a river, here perennial, but at a short distance beyond lost in the sands. The chief ruin is a rectangular walled enclosure, 238 ft. by 198 ft., known as the Hieron, having three small and one large entrance. The great gateway is a fine monumental arch in fair preservation, with an inscription to Antoninus Pius. Facing the arch, within the Hieron, their rear walls forming one side of the enclosure, are three temples, connected with one another by arches, and forming one design. The length of the entire façade is 118 ft. The principal chamber of the central temple, which is of the Composite order, is 44 ft. long; those of the side temples, in the Corinthian style, are smaller. The walls of the middle temple are ornamented with engaged columns; those of the other buildings with pilasters. The porticos have fallen, and their broken monolithic columns, with fragments of cornices and other masonry, lie piled within the enclosure, which is still partly paved. (In 1901 a violent storm further damaged the temples and forced the gateway out of the perpendicular.) The other ruins include a triumphal arch of Constantine, a still serviccable bridge and a square keep or tower of late date. The carly history of Sufetula is preserved only in certain inscriptions. Under Antoninus and Marcus Aurelius it appears to have been a flourishing city, the district, now desolate, being then very fertile and covered with forests of olives. It was partly rebuilt during the Byzantine occupation and became a centre of Christianity. At the time of the Arab invasion it was the capital of the exarch Gregorius, and outside its walls the battle was fought in which he was slain; his daughter, who is said by the Arab historians to have fought by the side of her father, became the wife of one of the Arab leaders. The invaders besieged, captured and sacked Sufetula, and it is not afterwards mentioned in history. It was not until the close of the 19th century that the ruins were thoroughly examined by French savants. See A. Graham, Roman Africa (London, 1902); Šir R. L. Playfair, Travels in the Footsteps of Bruce (London, 1877). SCABBARD, the sheath of a sword. The early forms of the word given in the Promptorium parvulorum are scauberk, scaubert or scauberd. The termination is certainly from the Teutonic bergen, to protect, as seen in "hauberk," "hawberk " (i.e. halsberg), literally a protection for the neck and shoulders, hence the "long tunic of mail of the 12th century (sce ARMS AND ARMOUR). The first part is doubtful; Skeat takes it as representing the O. Fr. escale, mod. &caille, shell, Ger. Schale; the word would therefore mean an outer sheath or shell that covers or protects. SCABBLING, or SCAPPLING, in building, the process of reducing a stone to a rough square by the axe or hammer; in Kent the rag-stone masons call this knobbling (see MASONRY). SCABIES, or ITCH, a skin disease due to an animal parasite, the Sarcoptes scabei (see MITE), which burrows under the epidermis at any part of the body, but hardly ever in the face or scalp of adults; it usually begins at the clefts of the fingers, where its presence may be inferred from several scattered pimples, which will probably have been torn at their summits by the scratching of the patient, or have been otherwise converted into vesicles or pustules. The remedy is soap and water, and sulphur ointment. SCAEVOLA, the name of a famous family of ancient Rome, the most important members of which were: I. GAIUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a legendary hero, who volunteered to assassinate Lars Porsena when he was besieging Rome. Making his way through the enemy's lines to the royal tent, See A. H. J. Greenidge, History of Rome. 3. QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, son of (2), usually called "Pontifex Maximus," to distinguish him from (4), consul in 95 B.C. with his friend L. Licinius Crassus the orator. He and his colleague brought forward the lex Licinia Mucia de civibus regundis, whereby any non-burgess who was convicted of having usurped the rights of citizenship was to be expelled from Rome, and any non-burgess was forbidden under pain of a heavy penalty to apply for the citizenship. Its object was undoubtedly to purify the elections and to prevent the undue influence of the Italians in the comitia. The indignation aroused by it was one of the chief causes of the Social War (see Mommsen's Hist. of Rome). After his consulship Scaevola was governor of the province of Asia, in which capacity he distinguished himself by his just dealing and his severe measures against the unscrupulous farmers of taxes (publicani). The latter, finding themselves unable to touch Mucius, attacked him in the person of his legate, Publius Rutilius Rufus (q.v.). In honour of his memory the Greeks of Asia set aside a day for the celebration of festivities and games called Mucia. He was subsequently appointed Pontifex Maximus, and, in accordance with a custom that had prevailed since the first plebeian appointment to that office (about 150 years before), was always ready to give gratuitous legal advice. His antechamber was thronged, and even the chief men of the state and such distinguished orators as Servius Sulpicius consulted him. He kept a firm hand over the priestly colleges and insisted upon the strict observance of definite regulations, although he was by no means bigoted in his views. He held that there were two kinds of religion, philosophical and traditional. The second was to be preferred for the sake of the unreasoning multitude, who ought to be taught to set a higher 1 Some authorities hold that Quintilian(Inst. Oral. xi. 2, 38) refers to Scaevola (3). value upon the gods, while people of intellect had no need of religion at all. He was proscribed by the Marian party, and in 82, when the younger Marius, after his defeat by Sulla at Sacriportus, gave orders for the evacuation of Rome and the massacre of the chief men of the opposite party, Scaevola, while attempting to reconcile the opposing factions, was slain at the altar of Vesta and his body thrown into the Tiber. He had already escaped an attempt made upon his life by Gaius Fimbria at the funeral of the elder Marius in 86. Scaevola was the founder of the scientific study of Roman law and the author of a systematic treatise on the subject, in eighteen books, frequently quoted and followed by subsequent writers. It was a compilation of legislative enactments, judicial precedents and authorities, from older collections, partly also from oral tradition. A small handbook called "Opo (Definitions) is the oldest work from which any excerpts are made in the Digest, and the first example of a special kind of judicial literature (libri definitionum or regularum). It consisted of short rules of law and explanations of legal terms and phrases. A number of speeches by him, praised by Cicero for their elegance of diction, were in existence in ancient times. 4. QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA (c. 159-88 B.C.), uncle of (3), from whom he is distinguished by the appellation of "Augur." He was instructed in law by his father, and in philosophy by the famous Stoic Panaetius of Rhodes. In 121 he was governor of Asia. Accused of extortion on his return, he defended himself and, though no orator, secured his acquittal by his legal knowledge and common sense. In 117 he was consul. He did not take a prominent part in the Senate, but his brief, unpolished remarks sometimes made a great impression. He was a great authority on law, and at an advanced age he gave instruction to Cicero and Atticus. He had a high appreciation of Marius, and when Sulla assembled the senate, to obtain from it a declaration that Marius was the enemy of his country, Scaevola refused He married Laclia (the daughter of Gaius Laelius, the friend of the younger Scipio), by whom he had a son and two daughters, one of whom became the wife of Licinius Crassus the orator. Scaevola is one of the interlocutors in Cicero's De oratore, De amicitia and De republica. his assent. For the legal importance of the Scaevolas, see A. Schneider, Die drei Scaevola Ciceros (Munich, 1879), with full references to ancient and modern authorities. SCAFELL (pronounced and sometimes written Scaw Fell), a mountain of Cumberland, England, in the Lake District. The name is specially applied to the southern point (3162 ft. in height) of a certain range or mass, but Scafell Pike, separated from Scafell by the steep narrow ridge of Mickledore, is the highest point in England (3210 ft.). The ridge continues N.E. to Great End (2984 ft.), which falls abruptly to a flat terrace, on which lies Sprinkling Tarn. The terrace is traversed by the path between Sty Head Pass (1600 ft.) and Esk Hause (2490 ft.). The range thus defined may be termed the Scafell mass. Northwest from the Pike the lesser height of Lingmell (2649 ft.) is thrown out like a bastion, and the steep flank of the range, scored with the deep gully of Piers Gill, sweeps down to the head of Wasdale. On the east an even steeper wall, with splendid crags, falls to Eskdale. Above Mickledore ridge Scafell rises nearly sheer, the rock scored with bold clefts; here are some of the ascents most in favour with the mountaineers. Some of these tax climbers to the utmost; and the mountain has been the scene of several accidents. SCAFFOLD, SCAFFOLDING (from the O. Fr. escafaut, originally escafalt, modern échafaud, a corruption of the Italian or Spanish catafalco, a platform, especially a canopy over a bier, a catafalque; this word is composed of O. Span. catar, O. Ital. catare, to view, Lat. captare, to watch, observe, and balco, balcony), properly a platform or stage, particularly one of a temporary character erected for viewing or displaying some spectacle, and hence applied to the raised structure on which the execution of a criminal or condemned person is carried out. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, &c.). The word "scaffold" or "scaffolding" is used in a technical sense of an obstruction formed in a blast furnace by the fitting together of lumps which form a comparatively solid skeleton mass inside the furnace, preventing the charge from descending properly. The most general modern application of the word, however, is, in building, to the temporary structure of platforms erected or suspended at convenient heights to afford workmen easy access to their work. Such scaffolds may be divided into four principal classes-bricklayers' scaffolds, masons' scaffolds, gantries and derrick towers or stages. The first two are constructed with upright and horizontal poles lashed together. Gantries and derricks are built up of squared timber, and the different members are connected by iron bolts and dogs. Brick layers' scaffold. The bricklayers' scaffold is constructed of standards, ledgers and putlogs, and the connexions are made with lashings of rope, though wire ropes or chains are sometimes used. The standards are a series of upright fir poles 30 to 50 ft. in length, either (1) sunk about 2 ft. into the ground, (2) fixed in barrels filled with earth lightly rammed, or (3) placed upon a "sole plate" of timber with a square formed of small fillets of wood round the base to prevent movement. The standards are placed 6 to 9 ft. apart, and about 5 ft. away from the building. At every 5 ft. ledgers are tied to the standards to support the putlogs, which in turn support the platform of planks. The ledgers are poles lashed horizontally to the standards; upon these, putlogs, usually of birch wood 3 in. square in section, are laid about 3 or 4 ft. apart, with one end resting on the ledger and the other in a recess in the wall. The outer end should be lashed to the ledger. Boards are then laid upon these putlogs parallel with the face of the wall. Two thicknesses of boards are laid when the work is heavy. If the scaffold is erected in an exposed position or is more than 30 ft. high, it should be stiffened by cross braces of poles running diagonally across the face of the structure and firmly lashed to all the main timbers touched. Ties should also be taken back from the face of the scaffold through apertures in the walls of the building and firmly secured. These ties should be connected with every fourth standard and start at a height between 20 and 30 ft. from the ground. Instead of, or in addition to, these ties light shores may be taken from the face of the scaffold outwards from the building. As the work is carried up the boarding and many of the putlogs are removed to the stage above, some putlogs, however, being left tied to the lower ledgers to stiffen the scaffold. In the case of thick walls a scaffold is required inside as well as outside the building, and when this is the case the two structures are tied together and stiffened by short connecting poles through the window and door openings. Masons' scaffold. The mason requires an independent scaffold. He cannot rest the inner ends of his putlogs in the wall as the bricklayer does, for this would disfigure the stonework, so he erects another and parallel framework of standards and ledgers within a few inches of the wall-face upon which to support them. The two portions are tied together with cross braces, and the whole of the timbering is made capable of taking heavier weights than are required in the case of the bricklayer. Scaffolding poles are of Northern pine obtained chiefly from the Baltic ports. They consist of small trees up to 30 to 40 ft. long and of not more than 9 in. in diameter. They are sold with the bark on, but this should be removed before use. Materials. Such material forms the standards and ledgers. The putlogs are usually pieces of birch from 3 to 4 in. square in section, and 5 to 6 ft. long. In order to have the fibres uncut they should be split, not sawn. Scaffold boards are made in 8-to 12-ft. lengths, 7 or 9 in. wide, and 1 in. or 2 in. thick. They should be of yellow deal, but they are more often cut from spruce. The corners are cut off and the ends bound with stout hoop-iron to prevent splitting. The cords used for lashing are made of jute and hemp fibre. The best and strongest cords are those of white Manilla hemp. The fibres for scaffold cords are often dipped in hot tar before being made up into rope. The ropes generally used by the scaffolder are either "shroud laid," having three strands of fibres wound tightly around a core, or "three strand," which are similar but without a core. The erection of scaffolding demands nerve and physical strength, as well as skill and discretion. The timbers near the ground are fixed by hand labour alone; the higher poles are raised Erection. by pulley and rope. The wedges used for tightening cordage are driven in between the pole and the rope. They should be of oak or other hard wood, about 12 in. long and semicircular in cross section, and should taper off from one end to the other. Practically the only tool used by the scaffolder is his hatchet, made with a hammer-head for driving spikes and wedges; the wooden handle he often uses as a lever to tighten knots and cords. Scaffolds should not be too heavily loaded, and the weight of materials should be distributed as much as possible. This applies especially to bricklayers' scaffolds, for heavy concentrated loads, even if not sufficient to cause the scaffold to fail, tend to injure the brickwork. In Scotland and the north of England much work is done from inside by means of platforms of boards placed upon the floor joists. When the work gets so advanced that it cannot be reached from the floor, trestles and platforms are used. For executing special external features, such as stone carving or plaster moulding, a scaffold will be thrown out on cantilevers projecting through openings in the wall and tied down inside the building. The materials are usually hoisted by derrick cranes. "Gantry" is the term applied to a staging of squared timber used for the easy transmission of heavy material. The name has, however, come to be used generally for strong stagings Gantries. of squared timber whether used for moving loads or not. Taking the general meaning of the term, gantries may be divided into three classes: (1) Gantries supporting a traveller; (2) Travelling gantries, in which the whole stage moves along rails placed on the ground; (3) Elevated platforms which serve as a base upon which to erect pole scaffolding. A gantry to support a traveller (fig. 1) consists of two sets of framing placed at a convenient distance apart, say 8 ft. or more, and standing independently of each other. These frames consist of standards or uprights standing upon a sleeper or sill resting in a continuous line upon the ground. The tops of the standards are levelled to receive the head or runner. Struts are taken from cleats fixed at a convenient point in the sides of the standards, and meet in pairs under the middle of the head; sometimes a straining-piece is introduced between them. Struts are also taken outwards from the uprights and bedded on foot-blocks or bolted to small piles driven into the ground. The space between the two frames must be kept free from struts and ties of any description so as to leave a free passage for the material while being lifted and moved. The different members are connected by iron dogs and bolts; dogs are used wherever possible, as they form a strong connexion and do not spoil the FIG. 1. A travelling gantry (fig. 2) runs along rails placed on the ground, and consists of two strong trusses braced and bolted together and supporting the two trussed girders which take the crabwinch. The latter is mounted on wheels, and by simple gearing is caused to run along the rails fixed on the upper side of the girders. This is a most useful form of gantry, and requires a very small amount of timber for its construction. The travelling frame is, however, very heavy, and such an apparatus is usually fitted with a steam winch, the power from which, besides lifting the materials, can also be applied to move the traveller. Gantries built on this principle have been used successfully in building or repairing lofty and wide-spanned steel or other roofs. After the collapse of the steel "bowstring" roof of Charing Cross station (London) in December 1905, huge travelling gantries running along rails laid upon the station platforms were employed, and these provided an efficient and economical means of access to the damaged portions; as section by section the work was removed the gantries were shifted along to the next bay. These gantries were 60 ft. in height. One, used to strip and remove the coverings of the roof, was 32 ft. deep, weighed 200 tons and moved upon 24 steel flanged wheels; the other, 40 ft. deep and with 32 wheels, weighed 250 tons and was used to take down the structural steel work of the roof. Four cranes were erected upon the staging to lower the material as it was removed. The amount of timber used in these gantries was 22,400 cubic ft. In the erection of the Williamsburg Bridge over wood for other purposes as bolt-holes do. They should be placed the East river, New York, for which 19,000 tons of steel were used, on both sides of the timbers to be connected. "framed timber falsework" was built up of squared timber to a height The size of the of 100 ft. and 90 ft. wide at the top. The span was 355 ft. The timbertimbers varies according to the height of the structure and the ing was in three storeys or stages, and cach" bent had 8 vertical and weight intended to be carried. The standards may be from 4 battering posts. The bents were 20 ft. apart and were connected |