372

rigged vessels (see RIGGING and SHIP). According to the story,
which is probably true, the name arose from a chance spectator's
exclamation" there she scoons," i.c. glides, slips free, at the
launch of the first vessel of this type at Gloucester, Massachusetts,
schooner " is due to a supposed derivation from the Dutch
in 1713, her builder being one Andrew Robinson. The spelling
schooner, but that and the other European equivalents, Ger.
Schoner, Dan. skonnert, Span. and Portuguese escuna, &c., are
all from English. "To scoon," according to Skeat, is a Scottish
(Clydesdale) dialect word, meaning to skip over water like a flat
stone, and is ultimately connected with the root, implying quick
motion, seen in shoot, scud, &c. In American colloquial usage
"schooner" is applied to the covered prairie-wagons used by
the emigrants moving westward before the construction of
railways, and to a tall, narrow, lager-beer glass.

towards the settyng up of a free skolle," which was started | require a smaller crew in proportion to their size than squarenext year to "teche the cheldarne to write and rede and cast accompthe." At St Lawrence Jewry in 1568 a school was kept over the vestry. At St Ethelwyn's in 1589 Smythe" the schoolmaster" paid 10s. for kepinge scole in the belfry." At Stevenage in 15611562 the old Brotherhood house and some endowment was bought by subscription for a school " to teach scholars called pettits to read English, write, cast accounts and learn the accidence." Some of these and other like schools were rather junior or preparatory departments of the grammar school than independent elementary schools. The foundation of purely elementary schools was rare in Elizabeth's reign. In Warwickshire, Alcester in 1582, Henley-in-Arden in 1586, in-Salop, Onibury in 1593, in Essex, Littlebury in 1595, appear to be pretty well all those known. Those mentioned in Mr de Montmorency's " State Intervention," taken from the Digest of Schools of 1842, are mostly of charities afterwards applied to elementary education, not founded for the purpose. In most counties the earliest elementary endowed schools are of James I.'s reign, such as Appleton, Berkshire, in 1604, Northiam, Sussex, in 1614, Sir William Borlase's school at Great Marlow in Buckinghamshire (now a secondary school) in 1624. At great impetus was given to them by the Commonwealth, and many were founded by state action, only to be destroyed at the Restoration. Conspicuous among Commonwealth schools was that of Polesworth, Warwickshire, founded by deed of 10th March 1655, the first endowed school which provided for girls as well as boys, the boys under a master to learn to write and read English, the girls in a separate schoolroom under a mistress to learn to read and work with the needle. In Wales Thomas Gouge, an ejected minister, in 1672, started voluntary schools.

After 1670 there was a large increase in elementary school foundations. The reign of Queen Anne saw a new development take place of the charity schools. The movement was started in 1698 by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, and taken up by the bishops with an organized propaganda for getting subscriptions. The schools founded were commonly called blue or blue-coat schools, though there were red maids', green and even yellow schools. Many were boarding-schools on the model of Christ's Hospital, where slum children, girls and boys, in separate schools of course, were taken in and prepared for service and work. But there were many day schools. All, however, provided a uniform of the Christ's Hospital type. They were chiefly in the large towns, and still comprise some of the richest endowed elementary schools. Over 100 of them were established between 1698 and 1715 in London and Westminster, and in 1729 there were 1658 schools with 34,000 children. In that year the was started in curious development of "circulating schools Wales, the masters residing for a certain time in one district and then passing on to another. (This was a device known in medieval times, and notable examples of it were Sir Robert Hitcham's rotatory school for Earl's Colne and two other places in Essex during the Commonwealth.) Griffith Jones was the principal promoter, and at his death in 1761 there were 10,000 children in the schools. In 1801 the Lancasterian system of schools, not of a few boys or girls, but of several hundreds taught in classes of 60 or 80, chiefly by pupil teachers, was inaugurated in the Borough Road by Joseph Lancaster. Out of it grew the British and Foreign School Society. This was undenominational. In 1811 the National Society adopted the similar, but rival, Bell or "Madras system" for Church of England teaching. The effect of these two organizations was to cover the country with elementary schools, partly endowed, chiefly supported by These completed the voluntary contributions and low fees. system, if system it could be called, of sporadic elementary schools. After the Reform Act of 1832 the state stepped in with grants and has gradually made elementary education

universal.

See further under EDUCATION.

(A. F. L.)

SCHOONER, a vessel rigged with fore and aft sails, properly with two masts, but now often with three, four and sometimes more masts; they are much used in the coasting trade, and

SCHOPENHAUER, ARTHUR (1788-1860), German philosopher, was born in Danzig on the 22nd of February 1788. His parents belonged to the mercantile aristocracy-the bankers and traders of Danzig. His father, Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer, the youngest of a family to which the mother had brought the germs of mental malady, was a man of strong will and originality, and so proud of the independence of his native town that when Danzig in 1793 surrendered to the Prussians he and his whole establishment withdrew to Hamburg. At the age of forty he married Johanna Henrietta Trosiener, then only twenty, but the marriage owing to difference of temperament was unhappy. Their two children, Arthur and Adele (born 1796), bore the penalty of their parents' incompatibilities. They were burdened by an abnormal urgency of desire and capacity for suffering, which no doubt took different phases in the man and the woman, but linked them together in a common susceptibility to ideal pain.1

was a

In the summer of 1787, a year after the marriage, the elder Schopenhauer, whom commercial experiences had made a cosmopolitan in heart, took his wife on a tour to western Europe. It had been his plan that the expected child should see the light The name Arthur was chosen because it in England, but the intention was frustrated by the state of his wife's health. remains the same in English, French and German. During, the twelve years which followed the removal of the From 1797 to 1799 Arthur family to Hamburg (1793-1805) the Schopenhauers made frequent excursions. boarder with M. Gregoire, a merchant of Havre, and friend of the Hamburg house, with whose son Anthime he formed a fast friendship. Returning to Hamburg, for the next four years he had but indifferent training. When he reached the age of fifteen the scholarly and literary instincts began to awaken. But his father, steeped in the spirit of commerce, was unwilling that a son of his should worship knowledge and truth. Accordingly he offered his son the choice between the classical school and an excursion to England. A boy of fifteen could scarcely hesitate. In 1803 the Schopenhauers and their son set out on a lengthened tour, of which Johanna has given an account, to Holland, England, France and Austria. Six months were spent in England. He found English ways dull and precise and the religious observances exacting; and his mother hadnot for the last time-to talk seriously with him on his unsocial and wilful character. At Hamburg in the beginning of 1805 he was placed in a merchant's office. He had only been there for three months when his father, who had shown

Johanna Schopenhauer (1766-1838) was in her day an author of some reputation. Besides editing the memoirs of Fernow, she published Notes on Travels in England, Scotland and Southern France romances, Gabriele (1819-1820), Die Tante (1823) and Sidonia (1813-1817); Johann van Eyck and his Successors (1823); three

renunciation (Entsagung). Her daughter Adele (1796-1849) seems (1828), besides some shorter tales. These novels teach the moral of to have had a brave, tender and unsatisfied heart, and lavished on her brother an affection he sorely tried. She also was an authoress, publishing in 1844 a volume of Haus-, Wald-, und Feld-Marchen, full of quaint poetical conceits, and in 1845 Anna, a novel, in two vols. See Laura Frost, Johanna Schopenhauer: ein Frauenleben (1905).

escape is possible from the spectre of materialism, theoretical and | but rejected works. Nothing came of this application.1 A practical; and so, says Schopenhauer, "the just and good must translation of selections from the works of Balthazar Gracian, all have this creed: I believe in a metaphysic." The mere which was published by Frauenstädt in 1862, seems to have been reasonings of theoretical science leave no room for art, and made about this time. practical prudence usurps the place of morality. The higher life of aesthetic and ethical activity-the beautiful and the good can only be based upon an intuition which penetrates the heart of reality. Towards the spring of 1818 the work was nearing its end, and Brockhaus of Leipzig had agreed to publish it and pay the author one ducat for every sheet of printed matter. But, as the press loitered, Schopenhauer, suspecting treachery, wrote so rudely and haughtily to the publisher that the latter broke off correspondence with his client. In the end of 1818, however, the book appeared (with the date 1819) as Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung, in four books, with an appendix containing a criticism of the Kantian philosophy (Eng. trans. by R. B. Haldane and J. Kemp, 1883). Long before the work had come to the hands of the public Schopenhauer had rushed off to Italy. He stayed for a time in Venice, where Byron was then living; but the two did not meet. At Rome he visited the art galleries, the opera, the theatre, and gladly seized every chance of conversing in English with Englishmen. In March 1819 he went as far as Naples and Paestum. About this time the fortunes of his mother and sister and himself were threatened by the failure of the firm in Danzig. His sister accepted a compromise of 70%, but Schopenhauer angrily refused this, and eventually recovered 9400 thalers.

In 1833 he settled finally at Frankfort, gloomily waiting for the recognition of his work, and terrified by fears of assassination and robbery. As the years passed he noted down every confirmation he found of his own opinions in the writings of others, and every instance in which his views appeared to be illustrated by new researches. Full of the conviction of his idea, he saw everything in the light of it, and gave each aperçu a place in his alphabetically arranged note-book. Everything he published in later life may be called a commentary, an excursus or a scholium to his main book; and many of them are decidedly of the nature of commonplace books or collectanea of notes. But along with the accumulation of his illustrative and corroborative materials grew the bitterness of heart which found its utterances neglected and other names the oracles of the reading world. The gathered illhumour of many years, aggravated by the confident assurance of the Hegelians, found vent at length in the introduction to his next book, where Hegel's works are described as three-quarters utter absurdity and one-quarter mere paradox-a specimen of the language in which during his subsequent career he used to advert to his three predecessors Fichte, Schelling, but above all Hegel. This work, with its wild outcry against the philosophy of the professoriate, was entitled Über den Willen in der Natur, and was published in 1836 (revised and enlarged, 1854; Eng. trans., 1889).

After some stay at Dresden, hesitating between fixing himself In 1837 Schopenhauer sent to the committee entrusted with as university teacher at Göttingen, Heidelberg or Berlin, he the execution of the proposed monument to Goethe at Frankfinally chose the last-mentioned. He was, however, not a good fort a long and deliberate expression of his views, in general and lecturer, and his work soon came to an end. His failure he attri-particular, on the best mode of carrying out the design. But buted to Hegelian intrigues. Thus, except for some attention to his fellow-citizens passed by the remarks of the mere writer of physiology, the first two years at Berlin were wasted. In May books. More weight was naturally attached to the opinion he 1822 he set out by way of Switzerland for Italy. After spending had advocated in his early criticism of Kant as to the importance, the winter at Florence and Rome, he left in the spring of 1823 if not the superiority, of the first edition of the Kritik; in the for Munich, where he stayed for nearly a year, the prey of illness collected issue of Kant's works by Rosenkranz and Schubert in and isolation. When at the end of this wretched time he left for 1838 that edition was put as the substantive text, with suppleGastein, in May 1824, he had almost entirely lost the hearing mentary exhibition of the differences of the second. of his right ear. Dresden, which he reached in August, no longer presented the same hospitable aspect as of old, and he was reluctantly drawn onwards to Berlin in May 1825.

The six years at Berlin were a dismal period in the life of Schopenhauer. In vain did he watch for any sign of recognition of his philosophic genius. Hegelianism reigned in the schools and in literature and basked in the sunshine of authority. Thus driven back upon himself, Schopenhauer fell into morbid meditations, and the world which he saw, if it was stripped, naked of its disguises, lost its proportions in the distorting light. The sexual passion had a strong attraction for him at all times, and, according to his biographers, the notes he set down in English, when he was turned thirty, on marriage and kindred topics are unfit for publication. Yet in the loneliness of life at Berlin the idea of a wife as the comfort of gathering age sometimes rose before his mind-only to be driven away by cautious hesitations as to the capacity of his means, and by the shrinking from the loss of familiar liberties. He wrote nothing material. In 1828 he made inquiries about a chair at Heidelberg; and in 1830 he got a shortened Latin version of his physiological theory of colours inserted in the third volume of the Scriptores ophthalmologici minores (edited by Radius).

Another pathway to reputation was suggested by some remarks he saw in the seventh number of the Foreign Review, in an article on Damiron's French Philosophy in the 19th Century. With reference to some statements in the article on the importance of Kant, he sent in very fair English a letter to the writer, offering to translate Kant's principal works into English. He named his wages and enclosed a specimen of his work. His correspondent, Francis Haywood, made a counter-proposal which so disgusted Schopenhauer that he addressed his next letter to the publishers of the review. When they again referred him to Haywood, he applied to Thomas Campbell, then chairman of a company formed for buying up the copyright of meritorious

in answer

In 1841 he published under the title Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik two essays which he had sent in 1838-1839 in competition for prizes offered. The first was in answer to the question "Whether man's free will can be proved from self-consciousness," proposed by the Norwegian Academy of Sciences at Drontheim. His essay was awarded the prize, and the author elected a member of the society. But proportionate to his exultation in this first recognition of his merit was the depth of his mortification and the height of his indignation at the result of the second competition. He had sent to the Danish Academy at Copenhagen in 1839 an essay "On the Foundations of Morality to a vaguely worded subject of discussion to which they had invited candidates. His essay, though it was the only one in competition, was refused the prize on the grounds that he had failed to examine the chief problem (i.e. whether the basis of morality was to be sought in an intuitive idea of right), that his explanation was inadequate, and that he had been wanting in due respect to the summi philosophi of the age that was just passing. This last reason, while probably most effective with the judges, only stirred up more furiously the fury in Schopenhauer's breast, and his preface is one long fulmination against the ineptitudes and the charlatanry of his bête noire, Hegel.

In 1844 appeared the second edition of The World as Will and Idea, in two volumes. The first volume was a slightly altered reprint of the earlier issue; the second consisted of a series of chapters forming a commentary parallel to those into which the original work was now first divided. The longest of these new chapters deal with the primacy of the will, with death and with the metaphysics of sexual love. But, though only a small edition was struck off (500 copies of vol. i. and 750 of vol. ii.), 1 It was not till 1841 that a translation of Kant's Kritik in English appeared.

He also projected a translation of Hume's Essays and wrote a preface for it.

The philosophy of Schopenhauer, like almost every system of the 19th century, can hardly be understood without reference to the ideas of Kant. Anterior to Kant the gradual advance of

from

the report of sales which Brockhaus rendered in 1846 was | is and does. More than others he leads a second life in the spirit or unfavourable, and the price had afterwards to be reduced. Yet intellect alongside of his life in the flesh-the life of knowledge there were faint indications of coming fame, and the eagerness beside the life of will. It is inevitable that he should be especially with which each new tribute from critic and admirer was wel- struck by the points in which the sensible and temporal life comed is both touching and amusing. From 1843 onwards a comes in conflict with the intellectual and eternal. It was thus jurist named F. Dorguth had trumpeted abroad Schopenhauer's that Schopenhauer by his own experience saw in the primacy of name. In 1844 a letter from a Darmstadt lawyer, Joh. August the will the fundamental fact of his philosophy, and found in the Becker, asking for explanation of some difficulties, began an engrossing interests of the selfish pws the perennial hindrances intimate correspondence which went on for some time (and which of the higher life. For his absolute individualism, which recogwas published by Becker's son in 1883). But the chief evangelist nizes in the state, the church, the family only so many superficial (so Schopenhauer styled his literary followers as distinct from and incidental provisions of human craft, the means of relief the apostles who published not) was Frauenstädt, who made was absorption in the intellectual and purely ideal aims which his personal acquaintance in 1846. It was Frauenstädt who prepare the way. for the cessation of temporal individuality succeeded in finding a publisher for the Parerga und Paralipomena, altogether. But theory is one thing and practice another; and which appeared at Berlin in 1851 (2 vols., pp. 465, 531; sel. trans. he will often lay most stress on the theory who is most conscious by J. B. Saunders, 1889; French by A. Dietrich, 1909). Yet of defects in the practice. It need not, therefore, surprise us for this bulky collection of essays, philosophical and others, that the man who formulated the sum of virtue in justice and Schopenhauer received as honorarium only ten free copies of the benevolence was unable to be just to his own kinsfolk and work. Soon afterwards, Dr E. O. Lindner, assistant editor of reserved his compassion largely for the brutes, and that the the Vossische Zeitung, began a series of Schopenhauerite articles. delineator of asceticism was more than moderately sensible of Amongst them may be reckoned a translation by Mrs Lindner the comforts and enjoyments of life. of an article by John Oxenford which appeared in the Westminster Review for April 1853, entitled "Iconoclasm in German Philosophy," being an outline of Schopenhauer's system. In 1854 Frauenstädt's Letters on the Schopenhauerean Philosophy idealism had been the most conspicuous feature in philo- Philosophy showed that the new doctrines were become a subject of dis-sophic speculation. That the direct objects of knowledge, the realities of experience, were after all only our ideas or Kant to cussion a state of things made still more obvious by the perceptions was the lesson of every thinker from Descartes Schopen university of Leipzig offering a prize for the best exposition and to Hume. And this doctrine was generally understood examination of the principles of Schopenhauer's system. Besides to mean that human thought, limited as it was by its own weakness and acquired habits, could hardly hope to cope sucthis, the response his ideas. gave to popular needs and feelings cessfully with the problem of apprehending the real things. The was evinced by the numerous correspondents who sought his idealist position Kant seemed at first sight to retain with an even advice in their difficulties. And for the same reason new editions stronger force than ever. But it is darkest just before the dawn; of his works were called for-a second edition of his degree and Kant, the Copernicus of philosophy, had really altered the dissertation in 1847, of his Essay on Colours and of The Will in the forms of thought (which he sought to isolate from the peculiarities aspects of the doctrine of ideas. It was his purpose to show that Nature in 1854, a third edition of The World as Will and Idea in incident to the organic body) were not merely customary means for 1859, and in 1860 a second edition of The Main Problems of licking into convenient shape the data of perception, but entered as Ethics. underlying elements into the constitution of objects, making experience possible and determining the fundamental structure of nature. In other words, the forms of knowledge were the main factor in making objects. By Kant, however, these forms are generally treated psychologically as the action of the several faculties of a mind. Behind thinking there is the thinker. But in his sucaside as antiquated. Thought or conception without a subjectcessors, from Fichte to Hegel, this axiom of the plain man is set agent appears as the principle-thought or thinking in its universality without any individual substrata in which it is embodied: To vol or vonois is to be substituted for vous. This is the step of advance which is required alike by Fichte when he asks his reader to rise from the empirical ego to the ego which is subject-object (i.e. neither and both), and by Hegel when he tries to substitute the Begriff or notion for the Vorstellung or pictorial conception. As spiritism asks us to accept such suspension of ordinary mechanics injury to their members, so the new philosophy of Kant's immediate as permits human bodies to float through the air and part without successors requires from the postulant for initiation willingness to reverse his customary beliefs in quasi-material subjects of thought.

In 1854 Richard Wagner sent him a copy of the Ring of the Nibelung, with some words of thanks for a theory of music which had fallen in with his own conceptions. Three years later he received a visit from his old college friend Bunsen, who was then staying in Heidelberg. On his seventieth birthday congratulations flowed in from many quarters. In April 1860 he began to be affected by occasional difficulty in breathing and by palpitation of the heart. Another attack came on in autumn (9th September), and again a week later. On the evening of the 18th his friend and subsequent biographer, Dr Gwinner, sat with him and conversed. On the morning of the 21st September he rose and sat down alone to breakfast; shortly afterwards his doctor called and found him dead in his chair. By his will, made in 1852, with a codicil dated February 1859, his property, with the exception of some small bequests, was devised to the above-mentioned institution at Berlin. Gwinner was named executor, and Frauenstädt was entrusted with the care of his manuscripts and other literary remains.

It is often said that a philosophic system cannot be rightly understood without reference to the character and circumstances of the philosopher. The remark finds ample application in the case of Schopenhauer. The conditions of his training, which brought him in contact with the realities of life before he learned the phrases of scholastic language, give to his words the stamp of self-seen truth and the clearness of original conviction. They explain at the same time the naïveté which set a high price on the products his own energies had turned out, and could not see that what was so original to himself might seem less unique to other judges. Preoccupied with his own ideas, he chafed under the indifference of thinkers who had grown blasé in speculation and fancied himself persecuted by a conspiracy of professors of philosophy. It is not so easy to demonstrate the connexion between a man's life and doctrine. But it is at least plain that in the case of any philosopher, what makes him such is the faculty he has, more than other men, to get a clear idea of what he himself

hauer.

But

But, besides removing the psychological slag which clung to Kant's ideas from their matrix and presenting reason as the active principle in the formation of a universe, his successors carried out with far more detail, and far more enthusiasm and historical scope, his principle that in reason lay the a priori or the anticipation of the world, moral and physical. Not content with the barren assertion that the understanding makes nature, and that we can construct science only on the hypothesis that there is reason in the world, they proceeded to show how the thing was actually done. to do so they had first to brush away a stone of stumbling which Kant had left in the way. This was the thing as it is by itself know, when and as we know it not. This somewhat is what Kant and apart from our knowledge of it-the something which we calls a limit-concept. It marks only that we feel our knowledge to be inadequate, and for the reason that there may be another species of sensation than ours, that other beings may not be tied by the special laws of our constitution, and may apprehend, as Plato says, by the soul itself apart from the senses. But this limitation, say the successors of Kant, rests upon a misconception. The sense of inadequacy is only a condition of growing knowledge in a being subject to the laws of space and time; and the very feeling is a Look at reason not in its single proof of its implicit removal. temporal manifestations but in its eternal operation, and then this universal thought, which may be called God, as the sense-conditioned reason is called man, becomes the very breath and structure

of the world. Thus in the true idea of things there is no irreducible | more; and it is his contention that what the scientist calls force residuum of matter: mind is the Alpha and Omega, at once the initial postulate and the final truth of reality.