2. Under the head of Particles come-(1) Adverbs. (2) Prepositions. (3) Conjunctions. (4) Interjections.

3. Consequently there are nine classes of Words(1) Nouns. (2) Pronouns. (3) Adjectives. (4) Articles. (5) Verbs. (6) Adverbs. (7) Prepositions. (8) Conjunctions. (9) Interjections. The proper combination of some or all of these Words forms the Sentence.

§ 1. NOUNS.

1. The Noun Substantive, or, as it is simply called, the NOUN, names a person, or a thing, or an abstract quality. Ex. Boy, stone, goodness.

Explanation of "Abstract Quality."-A quality does not really exist apart from the things of which it is a quality. For example, greenness, we will suppose, is a quality of grass, trees, paint, and other green things, but it does not really exist apart from these green things (grass, trees, paint, &c.). Yet we can imagine or conceive in our mind of a quality which we suppose to make things green as existing apart from, or abstracted from, the green things. This quality we name greenness, and it is called an abstract quality. Purity, wickedness, justice, are abstract qualities, because they do not really exist except in pure things, wicked things, just actions; and yet we can imagine or conceive in our mind that they have a separate existence of their own.

2. Nouns that equally well designate two or more persons or things or qualities of the same kind are called Common Nouns. Ex. Boy, which may be applied equally well to every boy that lives; River, which may be applied equally well to the Thames, the Danube, the Nile, &c.; Virtue, which may be applied equally well to courage, justice, &c.

Nouns that designate only one person or thing are called Proper Nouns. Ex. The Thames, Paris.

3. Nouns that name abstract qualities are called Abstract Nouns. Ex. Cowardice.

Nouns that name persons or things are called Concrete Nouns. Ex. Coward.

Nouns that name a number of persons or things

united in one body are called Collective Nouns. Ex. Army, Fleet.

Obs.-Collective Nouns and almost all Abstract Nouns are Common Nouns. Concrete Nouns are either Common or Proper. Abstract Nouns which are not Common are sometimes called Singulars. Ex. Milkwhiteness.

EXERCISE.

Write out in separate columns the Common, Proper, Abstract, and Collective Nouns in the following :— Caius Marcius is an enemy of the people.

One word, good citizens.

The Senate of Rome.

We are the King of England's subjects.

You incensed the rabble.

Never anything can be amiss,

When simpleness and duty tender it.

THE ACCIDENTS OR PROPERTIES OF NOUNS.

1. The Accidents or Properties of Nouns are three, Number, Gender, Case. The word Accidents is derived from the Latin word accidens (Plur. accidentia), and means "things that happen to them." Properties is derived from the Latin word proprium, and means" things that belong to them."

2. In some languages changes are made in the termination of the Noun, which of themselves show the Number, Gender, and Case of the Noun. These changes which the Noun undergoes are called its Inflection. In the English language Inflection only partially exhibits the Accidents of the Noun.

Explanation.-The Latin word Filius (which means "son") has a different termination for the Singular and the Plural Number-Sing. Filius, Plur. Filii; for the Masculine and the Feminine Gender-Masc. Filius, Fem. Filia; and for almost every Case-Filius, Filii, Filio, &c. Consequently, the Inflection of the word alone is sufficient to make known its Number, Gender, and Case; that is, the Inflection alone is sufficient to show whether it is one son or more sons that is spoken of, whether it is a son or a daughter, and whether "son" is in the Nomi

native, or in some other Case. In English, Inflection distinguishes the Number of the Noun-Sing. Son, Plur. Sons: but it seldom shows the Gender of the Noun; and it distinguishes only the Possessive Case of the Noun-Nom. Son, Poss. Son's, Obj. Son. Consequently, it is not sufficient by itself to exhibit the Accidents of Nouns.

(a) NUMBER.

1. There are two Numbers, 1. Singular, 2. Plural. A Noun in the Singular Number expresses one thing only. The Plural Number speaks of more things than Ex. Sing. Man, Plur. Men.

one.

2. The Plural is formed from the Singular by adding s to it. Ex. Sing. River, Plur. Rivers.

Exceptions:

(1) If the sound produced by the addition of the simples to the Singular is either difficult or disagreeable to pronounce, an e is interposed between the last letter of the Singular and the s This is the case with words ending in o, s, x, sh, ch. Negro, negroes; mass, masses; fox, foxes; crash, crashes; larch, larches.

Ex.

(2) Some words used to be formed in en instead of es. This usage is retained in the word oxen. Housen is found in some parts of England as a provincialism. Brethren and children are formed on the same model, each, however, adding a peculiarity of its own.

(3) Words whose final syllable is formed by a consonant and the letter y in the Singular, change y into ies in the Plural. Ex. Quantity, quantities.

(4) A few words form their Plural by changing the vowel or diphthong of the Singular into a different vowel or diphthong. Ex. Man, men; woman, women; foot, feet; goose, geese; louse, lice; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth.

ves.

(5) Words ending in for fe form their Plurals in Ex. Wolf, wolves; wife, wives. The word

staff, though ending in in place of fe, follows the same analogy, forming in the Plural staves.

(6) Foreign words assumed into the English language form their Plurals according to the rules of the language to which they belong, until such time. as they have become thoroughly Anglicised, when they occasionally admit the English as well as the foreign form, and sometimes even lose their original form.

Ex. Latin. Erratum, errata; memorandum, memorandums (less frequently, memoranda). Greek.-Hypothesis, hypotheses; dogma, dogmas (not dogmata).

French.-Trousseau, trousseaux or trousseaus. Italian.-Signor, Signori or Signors; studio, studios (not studii).

Hebrew.-Seraph, Seraphim or Seraphs.

(7) Some have the same form in the Plural as in the Singular. Ex. Grouse.

Some Nouns have no Plural. Ex. Gold, pride. Some have no Singular. Ex. Annals, thanks. A few have a different meaning in the Singular and in the Plural Number. Ex. Compass, compasses. A few have two Plural forms. Ex. Penny, pennies and pence; Fish, fish and fishes.

EXERCISE.

Write out a list of Nouns in the following: if they are in the Plural Number add the Singular, if it exists; if in the Singular Number: dd the Plu al, if it exists:

He that trusts you,

Where he should find you lions, finds you Fares,

Where foxes, geese.

You are no surer, no,

Than is the coal of fire upon the ice,

Or hailstones in the sun. Who deserves greatness
Deserves your hate, and your affections are
A sick man's appetite, who desires most that
Which would increase the evil.

(6) GENDER.

There are two sexes,

1. Gender expresses sex.

Ex.

the male and the female; therefore, there are two Genders, the Masculine and the Feminine. Masc. Man, Fem. Woman.

2. If a thing has no sex, the Noun expressing that thing is of no Gender, and it is, therefore, called Neuter, the word neuter meaning in Latin neither one nor the other." Ex. Stone, having no sex, is of the Neuter Gender. It is usual to speak of three Genders- the Masculine, the Feminine, the Neuter.

3. Sometimes a sex is attributed to things which have it not; and according as the male or female sex is attributed to them, the Gender of the Nouns which express those things is regarded as Masculine or Feminine. Ex. The moon is considered to be of the female sex and Feminine Gender. This usage was very frequent in the classical languages, and is common in most Continental languages, but it is rare in English.

4. Nouns applied to things male and female, without change of form, are called Common. Ex. Spouse, which is equally applicable to male or female.

5. The Gender of Nouns is sometimes shown by Inflection, or by a change of form. Ex. Host, hostess; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow. Sometimes it can only be discovered by a knowledge of the meaning of the words. Ex. King, Queen.

6. The Feminine Gender is formed, by inflection, from the Masculine

(1) By adding ess to it, and occasionally omitting the vowel in the last syllable of the Masculine. Ex. Peer, peeress; Tiger, tigress. (2) By changing the termination tor into trix in naturalised Latin words. Ex. Testator, testatrix.