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against mischievous errors. This is a form of the argument for religious intolerance, sufficiently remarkable not to be passed without notice.

against the dungeon and the stake. Men are not more zealous for truth than they often are for error, and a sufficient application of legal or even of social penalties will generally succeed in stopping the propagation of either. The real advantage which truth has consists in this, that when an opinion is true, it may be extinguished once, twice, or many times, but in the course of ages there will generally be found persons to rediscover it, until some

the Austrian empire, Protestantism was rooted out; and, most likely, would have been so in England, had Queen Mary lived, or Queen Elizabeth died. Persecution has always sucA theory which maintains that truth may ceeded, save where the heretics were too justifiably be persecuted because persecution strong a party to be effectually persecuted. cannot possibly do it any harm, cannot be No reasonable person can doubt that Chrischarged with being intentionally hostile to the tianity might have been extirpated in the reception of new truths; but we cannot com- Roman Empire. It spread, and became premend the generosity of its dealing with the dominant, because the persecutions were only persons to whom mankind are indebted for occasional, lasting but a short time, and septhem. To discover to the world something arated by long intervals of almost undisturbed which deeply concerns it, and of which it was propagandism. It is a piece of idle sentimenpreviously ignorant; to prove to it that it had tality that truth, merely as truth, has any inbeen mistaken on some vital point of temporal herent power denied to error, of prevailing or spiritual interest, is as important a service as a human being can render to his fellow-creatures, and in certain cases, as in those of the early Christians and of the Reformers, those who think with Dr. Johnson believe it to have been the most precious gift which could be bestowed on mankind. That the authors of such splendid benefits should be requited by martyrdom; that their reward should be to be dealt with as the vilest of criminals, is not, upon this theory, a deplorable error and mis-one of its reappearances falls on a time when fortune, for which humanity should mourn in sackcloth and ashes, but the normal and justifiable state of things. The propounder of a new truth, according to this doctrine, should stand, as stood, in the legislation of the Locrians, the proposer of a new law, with a halter round his neck, to be instantly tightened if the public assembly did not, on hearing his reasons, then and there adopt his proposition. People who defend this mode of treating benefactors, cannot be supposed to set much value on the benefit; and I believe this view of the subject is mostly confined to the sort of persons who think that new truths may have been desirable once, but that we have had enough of them now.

from favorable circumstances it escapes persecution until it has made such head as to withstand all subsequent attempts to suppress it.

It will be said, that we do not now put to death the introducers of new opinions: we are not like our fathers who slew the prophets, we even build sepulchres to them. It is true we no longer put heretics to death; and the amount of penal infliction which modern feeling would probably tolerate, even against the most obnoxious opinions, is not sufficient to extirpate them. But let us not flatter ourselves that we are yet free from the stain even of legal persecution. Penalties for opinion, or at least for its expression, still exist by law; and their enforcement is not, even in these times, so unexampled as to make it at all incredible that they may some day be revived in full force. In the year 1857, at the summer assizes of the county of Cornwall, an unfortunate man* said to be of unexceptionable conduct in all relations of life, was sentenced to twenty-one months' imprisonment, for uttering and writing on a gate some offensive Within a

But, indeed, the dictum that truth always triumphs over persecution, is one of those pleasant falsehoods which men repeat after one another till they pass into commonplaces, but which all experience refutes. History teems with instances of truth put down by persecution. If not suppressed forever, it may be thrown back for centuries. To speak only of religious opinions: the Reformation broke out at least twenty times before Luther, words concerning Christianity. and was put down. Arnold of Brescia was month of the same time, at the Old Bailey, two put down. Fra Dolcino was put down. Sav-persons, on two separate occasions, † were reonarola was put down. The Albigeois were jected as jurymen, and one of them grossly put down. The Vaudois were put down. insulted by the judge and by one of the counThe Lollards were put down. The Hussites were put down. Even after the era of Luther, wherever persecution was persisted in, it was successful. In Spain, Italy, Flanders,

* Thomas Pooley, Bodmin Assizes, July 31, 1857. In December following, he received a free pardon from the Crown. + George Jacob Holyoake, August 17, 1857; Edward Truelove, July, 1857.

sel, because they honestly declared that they | bad principle, when they are no longer bad had no theological belief; and a third, a for- enough to desire to carry it really into prac eigner,* for the same reason, was denied justice. But unhappily there is no security in tice against a thief. This refusal of redress the state of the public mind, that the suspentook place in virtue of the legal doctrine, that sion of worse forms of legal persecution, no person can be allowed to give evidence in which has lasted for about the space of a gena court of justice, who does not profess belief eration, will continue. In this age the quiet in a God (any god is sufficient) and in a fut-surface of routine is as often ruffled by ature state; which is equivalent to declaring tempts to resuscitate past evils, as to introsuch persons to be outlaws, excluded from duce new benefits. What is boasted of at the the protection of the tribunals; who may not present time as the revival of religion, is only be robbed or assaulted with impunity, if always, in narrow and uncultivated minds, no one but themselves, or persons of similar at least as much the revival of bigotry; and opinions be present, but any one else may be where there is the strong permanent leaven robbed or assaulted with impunity, if the of intolerance in the feelings of a people, proof of the fact depends on their evidence. which at all times abides in the middle classes The assumption on which this is grounded, is of this country, it needs but little to provoke that the oath is worthless, of a person who them into actively persecuting those whom does not believe in a future state; a proposi- they have never ceased to think proper obtion which betokens much ignorance of his- jects of persecution.* For it is this-it is the tory in those who assent to it (since it is his opinions men entertain, and the feelings they torically true that a large proportion of infi- cherish, respecting those who disown the bedels in all ages have been persons of distin- liefs they deem important, which makes this guished integrity and honor); and would be country not a place of mental freedom. For maintained by no one who had the smallest a long time past, the chief mischief of the leconception how many of the persons in great-gal penalties is that they strengthen the soest repute with the world, both for virtues cial stigma. It is that stigma which is really and attainments, are well known, at least to effective, and so effective is it, that the protheir intimates, to be unbelievers. The rule, fession of opinions which are under the ban besides, is suicidal, and cuts away its own of society is much less common in England, foundation. Under pretence that atheists than is, in many other countries, the avowal must be liars, it admits the testimony of all of those which incur risk of judicial punishatheists who are willing to lie, and rejects ment. In respect to all persons but those only those who brave the obloquy of publicly whose pecuniary circumstances make them confessing a detested creed rather than affirm independent of the good will of other people, a falsehood. A rule thus self-convicted of ab- opinion, on this subject, is as efficacious as surdity so far as regards its professed pur-law; men might as well be imprisoned, as expose, can be kept in force only as a badge of hatred, a relic of persecution; a persecution, too, having the peculiarity, that the qualification for undergoing it, is the being clearly proved not to deserve it. The rule, and the theory it implies, are hardly less insulting to believers than to infidels. For if he who does not believe in a future state necessarily lies, it follows that they who do believe are only prevented from lying, if prevented they are, by the fear of hell. We will not do the authors and abettors of the rule the injury of supposing, that the conception which they have formed of Christian virtue is drawn from their own consciousness.

These, indeed, are but rags and remnants of persecution, and may be thought to be not so much an indication of the wish to persecute, as an example of that very frequent infirmity of English minds, which makes them take a preposterous pleasure in the assertion of a

* Baron de Gleichen, Marlborough Street Police Court, August 4, 1857.

Ample warning may be drawn from the large infusion of

the passions of a persecutor, which mingled with the genera
display of the worst parts of our national character on the oc
casion of the Sepoy insurrection. The ravings of fanatics o
charlatans from the pulpit may be unworthy of notice; but the
heads of the Evangelical party have announced as their princi
ple for the government of Hindoos and Mahomedans, that no
schools be supported by public money in which the Bible is no
taught, and by necessary consequence that no public employ
ment be given to any but real or pretended Christians. An Un
der-Secretary of State, in a speech delivered to his constituent
on the 12th of November, 1857, is reported to have said: Toler
ation of their faith' (the faith of a hundred millions of Britis!
subjects), 'the susperstition which they called religion, by th
British Government, had had the effect of retarding the ascend
ancy of the British name, and preventing the salutary growt
of Christianity. . . . . Toleration was the great corner-stone o
the religious liberties of this country; but do not let them abus
the complete liberty to all, freedom of worship, among Chris
that precious word toleration. As he understood it, it mean
tians, who worshipped upon the same foundation. It mean
toleration of all sects and denominations of Christians wh
the fact, that a man who has been deemed fit to fill a high of
believed in the one mediation.' I desire to call attention t
fice in the government of this country under a liberal Minis
try, maintains the doctrine that all who do not believe in th
divinity of Christ are beyond the pale of toleration.
after this imbecile display, can indulge the illusion that relig
ious persecution has passed away, never to return?

Who

cluded from the means of earning their bread. | meant for their hearers, and are not those Those whose bread is already secured, and which have convinced themselves. Those who who desire no favors from men in power, or avoid this alternative, do so by narrowing their from bodies of men, or from the public, have thoughts and interest to things which can be nothing to fear from the open avowal of any spoken of without venturing within the region opinions, but to be ill-thought of and ill-spoken of principles, that is, to small practical matters, of, and this it ought not to require a very he- which would come right of themselves, if but roic mould to enable them to bear. There is the minds of mankind were strengthened and no room for any appeal ad misericordiam in enlarged, and which will never be made efbehalf of such persons. But though we do fectually right until then: while that which not now inflict so much evil on those who would strengthen and enlarge men's minds, think differently from us, as it was formerly free and daring speculation on the highest our custom to do, it may be that we do our-subjects, is abandoned. selves as much evil as ever by our treatment Those in whose eyes this reticence on the of them. Socrates was put to death, but the part of heretics is no evil, should consider in Socratic philosophy rose like the sun in heav- the first place, that in consequence of it there en, and spread its illumination over the whole is never any fair and thorough discussion of intellectual firmament. Christians were cast heretical opinions; and that such of them as to the lions, but the Christian church grew could not stand such a discussion, though up a stately and spreading tree, overtopping they may be prevented from spreading, do the older and less vigorous growths, and sti- not disappear. But it is not the minds of herefling them by its shade. Our merely social tics that are deteriorated most, by the ban intolerance kills no one, roots out no opinions, placed on all inquiry which does not end in but induces men to disguise them or to abstain the orthodox conclusions. The greatest harm from any active effort for their diffusion. done is to those who are not heretics, and With us, heretical opinions do not percepti- whose whole mental development is cramped, bly gain, or even lose, ground in each decade and their reason cowed, by the fear of heresy. or generation; they never blaze out far and Who can compute what the world loses in the wide, but continue to smoulder in the narrow multitude of promising intellects combined circles of thinking and studious persons with timid characters, who dare not follow among whom they originate, without ever out any bold, vigorous, independent train of lighting up the general affairs of mankind thought, lest it should land them in something with either a true or a deceptive light. And which would admit of being considered irrethus is kept up a state of things very satisfac-ligious or immoral? Among them we may tory to some minds, because, without the un- occasionally see some man of deep conscienpleasant process of fining or imprisoning any- tiousness, and subtle and refined understandbody, it maintains all prevailing opinions out- ing, who spends a life in sophisticating with wardly undisturbed, while it does not abso- an intellect which he cannot silence, and exlutely interdict the exercise of reason by dis- hausts the resources of ingenuity in attemptsentients afflicted with the malady of thought. ing to reconcile the promptings of his conA convenient plan for having peace in the in- science and reason with orthodoxy, which yet tellectual world, and keeping all things going he does not, perhaps, to the end succeed in on therein very much as they do already. doing. No one can be a great thinker who But the price paid for this sort of intellectual does not recognize, that as a thinker it is his pacification, is the sacrifice of the entire first duty to follow his intellect to whatever moral courage of the human mind. A state conclusions it may lead. Truth gains more of things in which a large portion of the most even by the errors of one who, with due study active and inquiring intellects find it advisa- and preparation, thinks for himself, than by ble to keep the general principles and grounds the true opinions of those who only hold them of their convictions within their own breasts, because they do not suffer themselves to and attempt, in what they address to the pub- think. Not that it is solely, or chiefly, to lie, to fit as much as they can of their own form great thinkers, that freedom of thinking conclusions to premises which they have in- is required. On the contrary, it is as much ternally renounced, cannot send forth the and even more indispensable, to enable averopen, fearless characters, and logical, consist-age human beings to attain the mental stature ent intellects who once adorned the thinking which they are capable of. There have been, world. The sort of men who can be looked and may again be, great individual thinkers, for under it, are either mere conformers to common-place, or time-servers for truth, whose arguments on all great subjects are

in a general atmosphere of mental slavery. But there never has been, nor ever will be, in that atmosphere, an intellectually active peo

ple. Where any people has made a tempo- | not make a tenable defence of it against the rary approach to such a character, it has been most superficial objections. Such persons, if because the dread of heterodox speculation they can once get their creed taught from auwas for a time suspended. Where there is a thority, naturally think that no good, and tacit convention that principles are not to be some harm, comes of its being allowed to be disputed; where the discussion of the greatest questioned. Where their influence prevails, questions which can occupy humanity is con- they make it nearly impossible for the residered to be closed, we cannot hope to find ceived opinion to be rejected wisely and conthat generally high scale of mental activity siderately, though it may still be rejected which has made some periods of history so rashly and ignorantly; for to shut out discusremarkable. Never when controversy avoid- sion entirely is seldom possible, and when it ed the subjects which are large and important once gets in, beliefs not grounded on convicenough to kindle enthusiasm, was the mind tion are apt to give way before the slightest of a people stirred up from its foundations, semblance of an argument. Waving, howand the impulse given which raised even per- ever, this possibility-assuming that the true sons of the most ordinary intellect to some- opinion abides in the mind, but abides as a thing of the dignity of thinking beings. Of prejudice, a belief independent of, and proof such we have had an example in the condition against, argument-this is not the way in of Europe during the times immediately fol- which truth ought to be held by a rational belowing the Reformation; another, though ing. This is not knowing the truth. Truth, limited to the Continent and to a more cultivated class, in the speculative movement of the latter half of the eighteenth century; and a third, of still briefer duration, in the intellectual fermentation of Germany during the Goethian and Fichtean period. These periods differed widely in the particular opinions which they developed; but were alike in this, that during all three the yoke of authority was broken. In each an old mental despotism had been thrown off, and no new one had yet taken its place. The impulse given at these three periods has made Europe what it now is. Every single improvement which has taken place either in the human mind or in institutions, may be traced distinctly to one or other of them. Appearances have for some time indicated that all three impulses are well nigh spent; and we can expect no fresh start, until we again assert our mental freedom.

Let us now pass to the second division of the argument, and dismissing the supposition that any of the received opinions may be false, let us assume them to be true, and examine into the worth of the manner in which they are likely to be held, when their truth is not freely and openly canvassed. However unwillingly a person who has a strong opinion may admit the possibility that his opinion may be false, he ought to be moved by the consideration that however true it may be, if it is not fully, frequently, and fearlessly discussed, it will be held as a dead dogma, not a living truth.

There is a class of persons (happily not quite so numerous as formerly) who think it enough if a person assents undoubtingly to what they think true, though he has no knowledge whatever of the grounds of the opinion, and could

thus held, is but one superstition the more, accidentally clinging to the words which enunciate a truth.

If the intellect and judgment of mankind ought to be cultivated, a thing which Protestants at least do not deny, on what can these faculties be more appropriately exercised by any one, than on the things which concern him so much that it is considered necessary for him to hold opinions on them? If the cultivation of the understanding consists in one thing more than in another, it is surely in learning the grounds of one's own opinions.

Whatever people believe, on subjects on which it is of the first importance to believe rightly, they ought to be able to defend against at least the common objections. But, some one may say, 'Let them be taught the grounds of their opinions. It does not follow that opinions must be merely parroted because they are never heard controverted. Persons who learn geometry do not simply commit the theorems to memory, but understand and learn likewise the demonstrations; and it would be absurd to say that they remain ignorant of the grounds of geometrical truths, because they never hear any one deny, and attempt to disprove them.' doubtedly: and such teaching suffices on a subject like mathematics, where there is nothing at all to be said on the wrong side of the question. The peculiarity of the evidence of mathematical truths is, that all the argument is on one side. There are no objections, and no answers to objections. But on every subject on which difference of opinion is possible, the truth depends on a balance to be struck between two sets of conflicting reasons. Even in natural philosophy, there is always some other explanation possible of the same

To abate the force of these considerations, an enemy of free discussion may be supposed to say that there is no necessity for mankind in general to know and understand all that can be said against or for their opinions by philosophers and theologians. That it is not needful for common men to be able to expose all the misstatements or fallacies of an ingenious opponent. That it is enough if there is always somebody capable of answering them, so that nothing likely to mislead uninstructed

facts; some geocentric theory instead of heli-erations which show that a fact which seemocentric, some phlogiston instead of oxygen; ingly conflicts with another is reconcilable and it has to be shown why that other theory with it, or that, of two apparently strong cannot be the true one: and until this is reasons, one and not the other ought to be shown, and until we know how it is shown, preferred. All that part of the truth which we do not understand the grounds of our turns the scale, and decides the judgment of opinion. But when we turn to subjects in- a completely informed mind, they are strangfinitely more complicated, to morals, religion, ers to; nor is it ever really known, but to politics, social relations, and the business of those who have attended equally and imparlife, three-fourths of the arguments for every tially to both sides, and endeavored to see the disputed opinion consist in dispelling the ap- reasons of both in the strongest light. So espearances which favor some opinion different sential is this discipline to a real understandfrom it. The greatest orator, save one, of an- ing of moral and human subjects, that if optiquity, has left it on record that he always ponents of all important truths do not exist, studied his adversary's case with as great, if it is indispensable to imagine them, and supply not still greater, intensity than even his own. them with the strongest arguments which What Cicero practised as the means of foren- the most skilful devil's advocate can conjure sic success, requires to be imitated by all who up. study any subject in order to arrive at the truth. He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that. His reasons may be good, and no one may have been able to refute them. But if he is equally unable to refute the reasons on the opposite side; if he does not so much as know what they are, he has no ground for preferring either opinion. The rational position for him would be suspension of judgment, and unless he contents himself with that, he is either led by authority, or adopts, like the generality of persons remains unrefuted. That simple the world, the side to which he feels most inclination. Nor is it enough that he should hear the arguments of adversaries from his own teachers, presented as they state them, and accompanied by what they offer as refutations. That is not the way to do justice to the arguments, or bring them into real contact with his own mind. He must be able to hear them from persons who actually believe them; who defend them in earnest, and do Conceding to this view of the subject the their very utmost for them. He must know utmost that can be claimed for it by those them in their most plausible and persuasive most easily satisfied with the amount of unform; he must feel the whole force of the dif-derstanding of truth which ought to accomficulty which the true view of the subject has pany the belief of it; even so, the argument to encounter and dispose of; else he will never for free discussion is no way weakened. For really possess himself of the portion of truth even this doctrine acknowledges that manwhich meets and removes that difficulty. kind ought to have a rational assurance that Ninety-nine in a hundred of what are called all objections have been satisfactorily aneducated men are in this condition; even of swered; and how are they to be answered if those who can argue fluently for their opin- that which requires to be answered is not ions. Their conclusion may be true, but it spoken? or how can the answer be known to might be false for anything they know: they be satisfactory, if the objectors have no ophave never thrown themselves into the men-portunity of showing that it is unsatisfactory? tal position of those who think differently If not the public, at least the philosophers and from them, and considered what such persons theologians who are to resolve the difficulties, may have to say; and consequently they do must make themselves familiar with those not. in any proper sense of the word, know difficulties in their most puzzling form; the doctrine which they themselves profess. and this cannot be accomplished unless they They do not know those parts of it which ex- are freely stated, and placed in the most adplain and justify the remainder; the consid-vantageous light which they admit of. The

minds, having been taught the obvious grounds of the truths inculcated on them, may trust to authority for the rest, and being aware that they have neither knowledge nor talent to resolve every difficulty which can be raised, may repose in the assurance that all those which have been raised have been or can be answered, by those who are specially trained to the task.

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