it has been developed and modified by his them to have any inclination, except for own culture-is said to have a character. One what is customary. Thus the mind itself is whose desires and impulses are not his own, bowed to the yoke: even in what people do for has no character, no more than a steam-en-pleasure, conformity is the first thing thought gine has a character. If, in addition to being of; they like in crowds; they exercise choice his own, his impulses are strong, and are only among things commonly done: peculiarunder the government of a strong will, he has ity of taste, eccentricity of conduct, are an energetic character. Whoever thinks that shunned equally with crimes: until by dint individuality of desires and impulses should of not following their own nature, they have not be encouraged to unfold itself, must maintain that society has no need of strong natures-is not the better for containing many persons who have much character-and that a high general average of energy is not desirable.

no nature to follow: their human capacities are withered and starved: they become incapable of any strong wishes or native pleasures, and are generally without either opinions or feelings of home growth, or properly their own. Now is this, or is it not, the desirable condition of human nature?

them. This is the theory of Calvinism; and it is held, in a mitigated form by many who do not consider themselves Calvinists; the mitigation consisting in giving a less ascetic interpretation to the alleged will of God; asserting it to be his will that mankind should gratify some of their inclinations; of course not in the manner they themselves prefer, but in the way of obedience, that is, in a way

In some early states of society, these forces might be, and were, too much ahead of the It is so, on the Calvinistic theory. Accordpower which society then possessed of disci- ing to that, the one great offence of man is plining and controlling them. There has self-will. All the good of which humanity is been a time when the element of spontaneity capable, is comprised in obedience. You and individuality was in excess and the so- have no choice; thus you must do, and no cial principle had a hard struggle with it. otherwise: whatever is not a duty, is a sin.' The difficulty then was, to induce men of Human nature being radically corrupt, there strong bodies or minds to pay obedience to is no redemption for any one until human any rules which required them to control nature is killed within him. To one holding their impulses. To overcome this difficulty, this theory of life, crushing out any of the law and discipline, like the Popes struggling human faculties, capacities, and susceptibiliagainst the Emperors, asserted a power over ties, is no evil: man needs no capacity, but the whole man, claiming to control all his life that of surrendering himself to the will of in order to control his character-which socie-God: and if he uses any of his faculties for ty had not found any other sufficient means any other purpose but to do that supposed of binding. But society has now fairly got will more effectually, he is better without the better of individuality; and the danger which threatens human nature is not the excess, but the deficiency, of personal impulses and preferences. Things are vastly changed, since the passions of those who were strong by station or by personal endowment were in a state of habitual rebellion against laws and ordinances, and required to be rigorously chained up to enable the persons within their reach to enjoy any particle of security. In prescribed to them by authority; and, thereour times, from the highest class of society fore, by the necessary condition of the case, down to the lowest, every one lives as under the same for all. the eye of a hostile and dreaded censorship. In some such insidious form, there is at Not only in what concerns others, but in present a strong tendency to this narrow thewhat concerns only themselves, the individ- ory of life, and to the pinched and hide-bound ual or the family do not ask themselves- type of human character which it patronizes. what do I prefer? or, what would suit my Many persons, no doubt, sincerely think that character and disposition? or, what would human beings thus cramped and dwarfed, allow the best and highest in me to have fair are as their Maker designed them to be; just play, and enable it to grow and thrive? They as many have thought that trees are a much ask themselves, what is suitable to my posi- finer thing when clipped into pollards, or cut tion? what is usually done by persons of my out into figures of animals, than as nature station and pecuniary circumstances? or made them. But if it be any part of religion (worse still) what is usually done by persons to believe that man was made by a good Beof a station and circumstances superior to ing, it is more consistent with that faith to mine? I do not mean that they choose what believe, that this Being gave all human facul. is customary, in preference to what suits ties that they might be cultivated and untheir own inclination. It does not occur to folded, not rooted out and consumed, and

ops nothing valuable, except such force of character as may unfold itself in resisting the restraint. If acquiesced in, it dulls and blunts the whole nature. To give any fair play to the nature of each, it is essential that different persons should be allowed to lead differ ent lives. In proportion as this latitude has been exercised in any age, has that age been noteworthy to posterity. Even despotism does not produce its worst effects, so long as individuality exists under it; and whatever

that he takes delight in every nearer ap- their good, by their mere displeasure, develproach made by his creatures to the ideal conception embodied in them, every increase in any of their capabilities of comprehension, of action, or of enjoyment. There is a different type of human excellence from the Calvinistic: a conception of humanity as having its nature bestowed on it for other purposes than merely to be abnegated. 'Pagan self-assertion' is one of the elements of human worth, as well as Christian self-denial.'* There is a Greek ideal of self-development, which the Platonic and Christian ideal of self-govern- crushes individuality is despotism, by whatment blends with, but does not supersede. It may be better to be a John Knox than an Alcibiades, but it is better to be a Pericles than either; nor would a Pericles, if we had one in these days, be without anything good which belonged to John Knox.

ever name it may be called, and whether it professes to be enforcing the will of God or the injunctions of men.

Having said that Individuality is the same thing with development, and that it is only the cultivation of individuality which pro

beings, I might here close the argument: for what more or better can be said of any condition of human affairs, than that it brings human beings themselves nearer to the best thing they can be? or what worse can be said of any obstruction to good, than that it prevents this? Doubtless, however, these considerations will not suffice to convince those who most need convincing; and it is necessary further to show that these developed human beings are of some use to the undeveloped-to point out to those who do not desire liberty, and would not avail

It is not by wearing down into uniformity [duces, or can produce, well-developed human all that is individual in themselves, but by cultivating it, and calling it forth, within the limits imposed by the rights and interests of others, that human beings become a noble and beautiful object of contemplation: and as the works partake the character of those who do them by the same process human life also becomes rich, diversified, and animating, furnishing more abundant aliment to high thoughts and elevating feelings, and strengthening the tie which binds every individual to the race, by making the race infinitely better worth belonging to. In proportion to the de-themselves of it, that they may be in some invelopment of his individuality, each person telligible manner rewarded for allowing other becomes more valuable to himself, and is people to make use of it without hindrance. therefore capable of being more valuable to In the first place, then, I would suggest that others. There is a greater fulness of life they might possibly learn something from about his own existence, and when there is them. It will not be denied by anybody, that more life in the units there is more in the originality is a valuable element in human afmass which is composed of them. As much fairs. There is always need of persons not compression as is necessary to prevent the only to discover new truths, and point out stronger specimens of human nature from en- when what were once truths are true no longer, croaching on the rights of others, cannot be but also to commence new practices, and set dispensed with; but for this there is ample the example of more enlightened conduct, and compensation even in the point of view of hu- better taste and sense in human life. This man development. The means of develop- cannot well be gainsayed by anybody who ment which the individual loses by being does not believe that the world has already prevented from gratifying his inclinations to attained perfection in all its ways and practhe injury of others, are chiefly obtained at tices. It is true that this benefit is not capathe expense of the development of other peo-ble of being rendered by everybody alike: ple. And even to himself there is a full there are but few persons, in comparison with equivalent in the better development of the social part of his nature, rendered possible by the restraint put upon the selfish part. To be held to rigid rules of justice for the sake of others, develops the feelings and capacities which have the good of others for their object. But to be restrained in things not affecting

*Sterling's Essays.

the whole of mankind, whose experiments, if adopted by others, would be likely to be any improvement on established practice. But these few are the salt of the earth; without them, human life would become a stagnant pool. Not only is it they who introduce good things which did not before exist; it is they who keep the life in those which already exist. If there were nothing new to be done,

yet done which some one was not the first to do, and that all good things which exist are the fruits of originality, let them be modest enough to believe that there is something still left for it to accomplish, and assure themselves that they are more in need of originality, the less they are conscious of the want.

would human intellect cease to be necessary? Meanwhile, recollecting that nothing was ever Would it be a reason why those who do the old things should forget why they are done, and do them like cattle, not like human beings? There is only too great a tendency in the best beliefs and practices to degenerate into the mechanical; and unless there were a succession of persons whose ever-recurring originality prevents the grounds of those beliefs and In sober truth, whatever homage may be practices from becoming merely traditional, professed, or even paid, to real or supposed such dead matter would not resist the small- mental superiority, the general tendency of est shock from anything really alive, and things throughout the world is to render methere would be no reason why civilization diocrity the ascendant power among mankind. should not die out, as in the Byzantine Empire. In ancient history, in the Middle Ages, and in Persons of genius, it is true, are, and are always a diminishing degree through the long transilikely to be, a small minority; but in order to tion from feudality to the present time, the have them, it is necessary to preserve the soil individual was a power in himself; and if he in which they grow. Genius can only breathe had either great talents or a high social posifreely in an atmosphere of freedom. Persons tion, he was a considerable power. At presof genius are, ex vi termini, more individual ent individuals are lost in the crowd. In polithan any other people-less capable, conse- tics it is almost a triviality to say that public quently, of fitting themselves, without hurtful compression, into any of the small number of moulds which society provides in order to save its members the trouble of forming their own character. If from timidity they consent to be forced into one of these moulds, and to let all that part of themselves which cannot expand under the pressure remain unexpanded, society will be little the better for their genius. If they are of a strong character, and break their fetters, they become a mark for the society which has not succeeded in reducing them to commonplace, to point out with solemn warning as 'wild,' 'erratic,' and the like; much as if one should complain of the Niagara River for not flowing smoothly between its banks like a Dutch canal.

opinion now rules the world. The only power deserving the name is that of masses, and of governments while they make themselves the organ of the tendencies and instincts of masses. This is as true in the moral and social relations of private life as in public transactions. Those whose opinions go by the name of public opinion, are not always the same sort of public: in America they are the whole white population; in England chiefly the middle class. But they are always a mass, that is to say, collective mediocrity. And what is a still greater novelty, the mass do not now take their opinions from dignitaries in Church or State, from ostensible leaders, or from books. Their thinking is done for them by men much like themselves, addressing them or speaking in their name, on the spur of the moment, through the newspapers. I am not complaining of all this. I do not assert that anything better is compatible, as a general rule, with the present low state of the human mind. But that does not hinder the government of mediocrity from being mediocre government.

I insist thus emphatically on the importance of genius, and the necessity of allowing it to unfold itself freely both in thought and in practice, being well aware that no one will deny the position in theory, but knowing also that almost every one, in reality, is totally indifferent to it. People think genius a fine thing if it enables a man to write an exciting poem, or paint a picture. But in its true No government by a democracy or a nusense, that of originality in thought and action, merous aristocracy, either in its political acts though no one says that it is not a thing to be or in the opinions, qualities, and tone of mind admired, nearly all, at heart, think that they which it fosters, ever did or could rise above can do very well without it. Unhappily this mediocrity, except in so far as the sovereign is too natural to be wondered at. Originality Many have let themselves be guided (which is the one thing which unoriginal minds cannot in their best times they always have done) by feel the use of. They cannot see what it is to the counsels and influence of a more highly do for them: how should they? If they could gifted and instructed One or Few. The initiasee what it would do for them, it would not be tion of all wise or noble things comes and originality. The first service which originality must come from individuals; generally at has to render them, is that of opening their first from some one individual. The honor eyes: which being once fully done, they would and glory of the average man is that he is cahave a chance of being themselves original. | pable of following that initiative; that he can

respond internally to wise and noble things, whole warehouseful to chose from: and is it and be led to them with his eyes open. I am easier to fit him with a life than with a coat, not countenancing the sort of hero-worship' or are human beings more like one another which applauds the strong man of genius in their whole physical and spiritual conforfor forcibly seizing on the government of the mation than in the shape of their feet? If it world and making it do his bidding in spite of were only that people have diversities of itself. All he can claim is, freedom to point taste, that is reason enough for not attemptout the way. The power of compelling others ing to shape them all after one model. But into it is not only inconsistent with the free- different persons also require different condidom and development of all the rest, but cor- tions for their spiritual development; and can rupting to the strong man himself. It does no more exist healthily in the same moral, seem, however, that when the opinions of than all the variety of plants can in the same masses of merely average men are everywhere physical, atmosphere and climate. The same become or becoming the dominant power, the things which are helps to one person towards counterpoise and corrective to that tendency the cultivation of his higher nature are hinwould be, the more and more pronounced in- drances to another. The same mode of life is dividuality of those who stand on the higher a healthy excitement to one, keeping all his eminences of thought. It is in these circum- faculties of action and enjoyment in their stances most especially, that exceptional in- best order, while to another it is a distracting dividuals, instead of being deterred, should be burden, which suspends or crushes all ínter encouraged in acting differently from the nal life. Such are the differences among humass. In other times there was no advan-man beings in their sources of pleasure, their tage in their doing so, unless they acted not susceptibilities of pain, and the operation on only differently, but better. In this age, the mere example of non-conformity, the mere refusal to bend the knee to custom, is itself a service. Precisely because the tyranny of opinion is such as to make eccentricity a reproach, it is desirable, in order to break through that tyranny, that people should be eccentric. Eccentricity has always abounded when and where strength of character has abounded; and the amount of eccentricity in a society has been proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigor, and moral courage it contained. That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time.

them of different physical and moral agencies, that unless there is a corresponding diversity in their modes of life, they.neither obtain their fair share of happiness, nor grow up to the mental, moral, and æsthetic stature of which their nature is capable. Why then should tolerance, as far as the public sentiment is concerned, extend only to tastes and modes of life which extort acquiescence by the multitude of their adherents? Nowhere (except in some monastic institutions) is diversity of taste entirely unrecognized; a person may, without blame, either like or dislike rowing, or smoking, or music, or athletic exercises, I have said that it is important to give the or chess, or cards, or study, because both freest scope possible to uncustomary things, those who like each of these things, and those in order that it may in time appear which of who dislike them, are too numerous to be put these are fit to be converted into customs. down. But the man, and still more the woBut independence of action, and disregard of man, who can be accused either of doing custom, are not solely deserving of encour- 'what nobody does,' or of not doing what agement for the chance they afford that bet-everybody does,' is the subject of as much deter modes of action, and customs more worthy | preciatory remark as if he or she had comof general adoption, may be struck out; nor mitted some grave moral delinquency. Peris it only persons of decided mental superiority who have a just claim to carry on their lives in their own way. There is no reason that all human existence should be constructed on some one or some small number of patterns. If a person possesses any tolerable amount of common sense and experience, his own mode of laying out his existence is the best, not because it is the best in itself, but because it is his own mode. Human beings are not like sheep; and even sheep are not andistinguishably alike. A man cannot get a coat or a pair of boots to fit him, unless they are either made to his measure, or he has a

sons require to possess a title, or some other badge of rank, or of the consideration of people of rank, to be able to indulge somewhat in the luxury of doing as they like without detriment to their estimation. To indulge somewhat, I repeat: for whoever allow themselves much of that indulgence, incur the risk of something worse than disparaging speeches

they are in peril of a commission de lunatico, and of having their property taken from them and given to their relations.*

There is one characteristic of the present

* There is something both contemptible and frightful in the

sort of evidence on which, of late years, any person can be

can be kept in outward conformity to rule
without any strength either of will or of rea-
son. Already energetic characters on any
large scale are becoming merely traditional.
There is now scarcely any outlet for energy
in this country except business.
The energy
expended in this may still be regarded as
considerable. What little is left from that
employment, is expended on some hobby;
which may be a useful, even a philanthropic
hobby, but is always some one thing, and
generally a thing of small dimensions. The
greatness of England is now all collective:
individually small, we only appear capable of
anything great by our habit of combining; and
with this our moral and religious philanthro-
pists are perfectly contented. But it was men
of another stamp than this that made Eng-
land what it has been; and men of another
stamp will be needed to prevent its decline.

direction of public opinion, peculiarly calcu- | reason, and strong feelings strongly controlled lated to make it intolerant of any marked by a conscientious will, its result is weak demonstration of individuality. The general feelings and weak energies, which therefore average of mankind are not only moderate in intellect, but also moderate in inclinations: they have no tastes or wishes strong enough to incline them to do anything unusual, and they consequently do not understand those who have, and class all such with the wild and intemperate whom they are accustomed to look down upon. Now, in addition to this fact, which is general, we have only to suppose that a strong movement has set in towards the improvement of morals, and it is evident what we have to expect. In these days such a movement has set in; much has actually been effected in the way of increased regularity of conduct, and discouragement of excesses; and there is a philanthropic spirit abroad, for the exercise of which there is no more inviting field than the moral and prudential improvement of our fellow-creatures. These tendencies of the times cause the public to be more disposed than at most former The despotism of custom is everywhere the periods to prescribe general rules of conduct, standing hindrance to human advancement, and endeavor to make every one conform to being in unceasing antagonism to that dispothe approved standard. And that standard, sition to aim at something better than cusexpress or tacit, is to desire nothing strongly. tomary, which is called, according to circumIts ideal of character is to be without any stances, the spirit of liberty, or that of progmarked character; to maim by compression, ress or improvement. The spirit of improvelike a Chinese lady's foot, every part of hu- ment is not always a spirit of liberty, for it man nature which stands out prominently, may aim at forcing improvements on an unand tends to make the person markedly dis- willing people; and the spirit of liberty, in so similar in outline to commonplace humanity. far as it resists such attempts, may ally itself As is usually the case with ideals which ex-locally and temporarily with the opponents of clude one-half of what is desirable, the pres- improvement; but the only unfailing and perent standard of approbation produces only manent source of improvement is liberty, an inferior imitation of the other half. Instead of great energies guided by vigorous

judicially declared unfit for the management of his affairs:

and after his death, his disposal of his property can be set aside, if there is enough of it to pay the expenses of litigation --which are charged on the property itself. All the minute details of his daily life are pried into, and whatever is found which, seen through the medium of the perceiving and describing faculties of the lowest of the low, bears an appearance unlike absolute commonplace, is laid before the jury as evidence of insanity, and often with success; the jurors being

little, if at all, less vulgar and ignorant than the witnesses;

since by it there are as many possible independent centres of improvement as there are individuals. The progressive principle, however, in either shape, whether as the love of liberty or of improvement, is antagonistic to the sway of Custom, involving at least cmancipation from that yoke; and the contest between the two constitutes the chief interest of the history of mankind. The greater part of the world has, properly speaking, no history, while the judges, with that extraordinary want of knowledge because the despotism of Custom is complete. of human nature and life which continually astonishes us in This is the case over the whole East. Custom English lawyers, often help to mislead them. These trials is there, in all things, the final appeal; justice speak volumes as to the state of feeling and opinion among the vulgar with regard to human liberty. So far from setting and right mean conformity to custom; the arany value on individuality--so far from respecting the right gument of custom no one, unless some tyrant of each individual to act, in things indifferent, as seems good to intoxicated with power, thinks of resisting. his own judgment and inclinations, judges and juries cannot even conceive that a person in a state of sanity can desire And we see the result. Those nations must such freedom. In former days, when it was proposed to burn once have had originality; they did not start atheists, charitable people used to suggest putting them in aout of the ground populous, lettered, and verswere we to see this done, and the doers applauding themed in many of the arts of life; they made themselves, because, instead of persecuting for religion, they had adopted 30 humane and Christian a mode of treating these

madhouse instead: it would be nothing surprising now-a-days

unfortunaves, not without a silent satisfaction at their having hereby caned their deserts.

selves all this, and were then the greatest and most powerful nations of the world. What are they now? The subjects or dependents of