her way is checked by the sails coming aback, the order "Let go the anchor" is given.

In furling the sails the whole charge devolves upon the mate who orders the men aloft, remaining himself in his place on deck and directing them as they proceed in the work of furling, seeing that the necessary ropes are hauled taut, or slacked, &c.

These remarks serve to illustrate the chief movements in such important maneuvers as getting under way and coming to anchor, in the ordinary merchantman, though a great difference obtains under differ ent circumstances.

In a smooth sea and gentle breeze the performance is easy and agreeable to all hands, but when on a dangerous coast and in rough weather it is arduous and trying in the extreme.

Mechanical appliances have of late years been invented which very much lessen the labor of getting the anchors of large ships.

In performing the evolutions of tacking and wearing ship, little change has been made for more than a century in the process and commands given. When on a voyage these maneuvers as well as those of reefing topsails are considered as "jobs for all hands," and the watch below is called on deck to take part in them, and the captain takes command in person.

In the evolution of tacking ship the master finding that the vessel will not lay within five or six points of her true course orders the chief mate to "call all hands" and "see all clear for stays." The mate then goes forward and orders all hands to their stations and sees that everything is clear and ready, especially the head gear and ropes on the forecastle. The master asks "All ready forward?" and being answered by the mate "Ay, ay sir," he tells or motions to the man at the helm to heave the wheel down, and soon after this is done calls out, "Hard alee," to which the mate, in order that there may be no misunderstanding, responds "Helm's alee," and sees that the bead sheets are let go. The master next gives the order, "Raise tacks and sheets," which is executed by mates and men at their stations loosening the ropes that hold the corners of the courses and hauling on the clue-garnets so that the clues may be more readily shifted into position for the opposite board. When the ship's head has turned almost directly to windward, the captain gives the command to brace about aft, which is, "Main topsail haul," when the sails on the main and mizzen masts are swung. If this order is given at the right moment the yards spin round rapidly to the opposite backstays, being helped by the wind striking the weather leech of the sails while their other side is becalmed by the head sails. The tacks and sheets of the mainsail are reversed by the mates and a few seamen, both courses being worked in moderate weather. The after sails are at the same time adjusted to stand upon the opposite tack. Finally, when the ship has come round so as to have the wind well on the opposite bow, the captain cries out, "Let go and haul," when the yards on the foremast are wheeled about by their braces. In this operation the chief mate will see to the trimming of the yards forward and to getting the foresail trimmed, while the master usually looks out for those on the main and mizzen, directing the men at their work by such familiar expressions as "Well the main yards," "Another pull the lee topsail brace," "Topgallant yard is well," "Weather royal brace a small pull," &c., so that every sail is trimmed sharp to the wind and the order to steer "full and by" on the other tack is given the man at the helm. "Full and by" means close-hauled by the wind and yet hav ing the sails full, which is always the order to the helmsman when a 5556 NAV--11

ship will not lay her true course. When the wind veers so that she will lay the course by compass, then the order to steer by compass is given, as WNW. or NE. by E., or whatever the direction is in which it is necessary to steer in order to reach the destination by sailing the shortest distance.

When a seainan is at the helm he has nothing else to attend to but his "trick," as his two hours' steering duty is called, and no communication is allowed with him. If he desires to be relieved he should speak to the officer of the deck, who will order another man to take the wheel, and when he is relieved he must give him the course aloud, and the seaman who relieves him must repeat the same in an audible tone. Also if an order is given the helmsman changing the course he must repeat it distinctly, so that the officer may be sure that he is not misunderstood. At the change of the watches the helmsman is always regularly changed, the man at the wheel being relieved like the rest of the watch, but if there is any all hands work to be done at that time, such as reefing topsails, &c., the helm is not relieved until it is completed and the watch ordered below. There are two regular tricks at the helm in a watch, except sometimes in cold weather the helmsmen are relieved every hour. Sometimes in heavy weather two men are put to the helm. In this case the man who stands to windward is regarded as the responsible helmsman, the other being only an assistant. In coming aft to take the heim, the man takes the lee side of the quarter-deck, and, coming up behind the helmsman, lays hold of it before the other lets go. The officer of the watch should, when possible, be present at the relief of the helm, so as to be sure that the course is properly repeated, which should be done in a voice sufficiently loud for him to hear.

Bells are struck to indicate the time at sea. At noon eight bells are struck, and one bell for a half hour until 4 p. m., which is eight bells again, after which the process is begun and repeated. A watch of four hours exhausts the eight bells. For example, eight bells is always 12, 4, and 8 o'clock. The bells are sounded two strokes at once and then two more after a moment's interval. If there is an odd number the odd bell is struck alone after the interval. This makes the computation more easy and shows plainly the distinction between the full hours, which are always marked by even bells, and the half hours, which are marked by odd numbers. The bells are struck twice in well-regulated ships; first aft by the officer of the deck or the man at the helm, if there is a clock in the wheelhouse, and then forward by the man on the lookout, who repeats the number on the big bell.

There is considerable difference in the discipline maintained on board the ships of different nations, and some in those of the same flag. In vessels where strict discipline is observed no conversation is allowed among the hands when they are employed at ship's duty, at least it is not permitted in the presence of an officer, and although when two or three men are together by themselves or aloft low conversation might be indulged in; yet, if it appeared to engross their attention or attract that of others it would be considered a breach of discipline. In respect to this regulation, however, there is considerable license, and coasters and small vessels on short trips do not enforce the same rule, but no seaman who has been accustomed to first-class merchantmen would deem it harsh treatment if forbidden to talk and laugh when at work. While the crew are below or forward on the forecastle great liberty is given the men, and the strictest martinet will not interfere with the noise and sport of the forecastle unless it becomes so boisterous as to interrupt the proceedings on deck. In working ship, when the men are

called to their stations the same silence is observed. A certain decorum is required also in taking in and reefing sails, so that if an order is given, the men who are addressed may understand. It is a good rule to enforce in the case of a man aloft who wants a rope let go, or anything done on deck, that he should hail the officer of the watch, and not call to any one whom he chances to see near.

The proper place for the foremast hands when on deck, but not employed, is forward of the after fore-rigging, and collected there they are at liberty to talk. In fact, more or less noise is expected from them in fine weather during the dog watches, which happens to be the time when all hands are usually awake.

Such are some of the customs and regulations which still obtain on board well-conducted ships in the American merchant service, and although more than forty years have elapsed since Dana published his famous work on the same subject, there has been an imperceptible change going on, wrought mainly through the gradual introduction of steam navigation, yet the principal requirements of seamen of different grades on shipboard and the system of economy practiced are essentially the same. And notwithstanding the fact that steam navigation exacts additional acquirements on the part of officers, those so essential to the complete seaman should not be neglected. All classes of steamers are more or less liable to become disabled. A heated bearing, a badly fitting crank-pin, a broken propeller, or a bent shaft not unfrequently occurs; and when these accidents do happen, or the supply of fuel becomes exhausted, the most powerful steamer has to fall back upon sails and ropes, under circumstances requiring the most consummate skill and amplest resources of the navigator.

It is probably but natural for men accustomed to sail in steamers to become unsuited to the more arduous duties and tedious maneuvers of the sailing ship, and the average sailor of to-day cannot in all respects perform those parts of his duty connected with sails as well as he used to do when sails were depended upon as the sole means of propulsion. There appears to be a disposition to merge the fireman or stoker into the sailor; and it is with a view to repress such pernicious tendencies that attention is directed to the more urgent duties and relations of officers and seamen by the foregoing remarks, which have been thought of sufficient importance to be incorporated here; and a word of warning also may not be inappropriate, for should the interest now felt in such matters even partially subside, it would be a great detriment to the mercantile affairs of the country.

SEAMEN.

There has been for some years much controversy about the relative condition of sailors, as to whether as a class they are improving or not, but the question is unsettled, and it annually recurs. It is a subject of vital importance in its economical as well as its social aspects, affecting as it does the welfare and morals of an indispensable part of the community, and also the operations of commerce, with all the risks to life and property that attend navigation.

With respect to the general efficiency of crews in seamanship much complaint has been made of late years, and it is doubtful if the standard is equal to what it used to be in the "good old times," when a ship requiring a crew had only to hoist a signal at the mast-head and the sailors came on board, and mustering around the capstan signed the articles according to their respective qualifications as "able seamen,"

"ordinary seamen," or "green hands"; no one presuming to rate himself at a higher capacity than he was able to perform the duties of, or thinking of claiming higher wages than belonged by custom to his particular grade. The sailors of those days, many of them, selected their own ships, made their own bargains, and carried their chests full of clothing on board, as proof of their intention to go in the ship, and when the ship was ready to sail they went on board sober and fit to perform their duties as soon as ordered. Such men were mostly native-born Americans, who took to the sea as a profession in which to make their fortunes. It is needless to say that they saved money, and were sure to rise to higher stations.

But this was in a time when the large proportion of American sailors were Americans, and before the introduction of a foreign element made the pernicious system of advance wages possible. The proportion of foreign-born seamen in the service has been gradually increasing, until it is now probably more than 50 per cent. These foreigners are chiefly Germans, Scandinavians, British, and Italians, who are attracted by the higher rate of wages paid in our vessels.

But, although somewhat affected by the decline of our tonnage, this condition of things was not entirely caused by the want of ships, but was also a natural consequence of the growth of the country, and the gradual mixing up of crews with those of other nations. This state of affairs cannot be expected to change except through the gradual increase of American seamen, which may be most effectually brought about by the establishment of a system of apprenticeship of American boys on some such plan as was recommended in my report of last year.

Ship owners state that it is hard to find crews to man their ships, and when they are found, a great many of them are landsmen, unable to even hand, reef, or steer. The apprentice system would in time work a change in the quality of our crews. Many of the men who man our ships now have drifted into our service from the British marine service. Alarmists in England have pointed out in Parliament and elsewhere the danger to be apprehended from a lack of men to man their fleet in time of war; and the British Government, alive to the great interests involved, have established training ships on every part of their coast in order to keep good the supply of seamen.

In this country the naval interests are none the less closely connected with the number and condition of the men who man our merchant ships. The 60,000 seamen who composed our naval force at the end of the war of the rebellion has shrunk to about 7,000, forming only a nucleus of what would be required in war time. Unlike the laborer in other fields, the sailor cannot be created in a day or even in a year; he must be trained and prepared by service afloat for the performance of his duties, and unless a nation has a thriving mercantile navy to draw her supply of seamen from she must necessarily be weak upon the ocean. The ques tion is also bound up with our great monetary or commercial interests. The hundred million dollars paid in freight money to foreign shipowners for carrying our products abroad is a national loss that, if carried by our own vessels, would enrich the country so much annually, and give to our flag its former prominence and rightful prestige on the

ocean.

The general complaint about poor and unseaworthy seamen, though repeatedly heard, may partly be explained by the fact that the number of vessels propelled by steam is continually increasing, and is every year bringing many coal-heavers and stokers into the service, men who are not really sailors, and who would not, many of them, rank perhaps as ordinary seamen, though some of them are very useful in their way.

The cry against these men has as much reason, perhaps, as that against unseaworthy ships so persistently made in England and elsewhere; and every one interested is anxious to find a remedy for so dangerous an evil, or at least some solution of the problem. It has been asserted that a compulsory and uniform system of physical examination of seamen at the time of shipment would be of use in eliminating the unseaworthy, more especially men affected by diseases known as purely preventable.

When a sailor signs the articles he contracts to give his services, which should be those of a healthy, able-bodied seaman, to the vessel he is to serve in for a consideration; and, although the letter of agreement may not stipulate that he should have done nothing to impair the value of his services, such is, nevertheless, the implied nature of the obligation. Therefore, when he is found to be diseased by his own act, he has violated the unwritten law of his contract, and would not be entitled to consideration. It has even been suggested by a medical officer of the marine-hospital service, writing upon the subject, that seamen in this condition should not be entitled to hospital relief. This writer says that

If patients suffering from these diseases could only be eliminated from those entitled to relief from the hospital fund, as has been suggested by the supervising surgeon, a vast stride would be made in the improvement of the physical standard of the merchant marine, for it cannot be doubted that when owners of vessels come to realize, as they soon would, that the shipment of a hospital patient instead of an able seaman meant the payment by the ship of expenses incurred in his treatment, they would not be slow in seeking the assistance of the inspecting surgeon.

And when it was found that seaworthy sailors meant shorter and more economical voyages, and less risk to property and life, the hands of those who are engaged in the work of elevating the physical, social, and moral condition of the toilers of the sea would be strengthened by those now interested only in the pecuniary profit.

It may be thought that the appointment of a competent physician by Government to examine each seaman before he signs the articles, as is done in the Navy, although it would insure a remedy to this growing evil, would cause delay, and be found to be impracticable in many short voyages made by our merchant vessels. At present, physical examination is optional, not compulsory, which, considering the different circumstances of different cases, is thought to be the better plan. But, if captains do not see fit to have a surgeon, the responsibility appears to rest with them, and they should feel duty bound to examine the men themselves, at least so far as to see and question each man as to his health and antecedents, as well as his capabilities for service.

There is no doubt if ship-masters would give their personal attention to their crews there would be much less complaint about unseaworthy

sailors.

However, judging from reports received at this Bureau, it would appear that the tone of the service is improving in this respect, and that the average number of sick and disabled seamen shipped is less than it was formerly.

The

One trouble appears to be that, owing to the lack of grading the men on the articles at the time of shipment, too many of this class (most of whom are foreigners) are often put on board of the same vessel, and it may be found difficult to work the ship after getting to sea. United States consul at Hull, writing on the subject just before the passage of the shipping bill of June 26, 1884, which act adopted some of the remedies recommended, says:

The wheat ships arriving at this and other ports from San Francisco are manned by the most worthless set of men. Of the large ships here during the past four