where it is suitable for them to fix. The capsule being ele- Such is the usual conformation of mosses, the organs of which we have spoken-root, stem, leaves, and capsulebeing present in all, though they vary in form, arrangement, and other particulars, according to the different genera of which they are members. In some the root is longer and more creeping than in others; the stems differ in length and in other points, some being branched, others simple; some feathered with leaves from base to apex, others bare at the base. The shape and veining of the leaves also varies in different kinds, as do the fruit-stalks, some being curved, as in Fig. 279, others erect, as in Fig. 280. Some proceed from the ends of the stem and branches, as in Fig. 279, whilst others come off laterally, as in Fig. 280; and some kinds are devoid of them altogether, the capsule being sessile, and buried among the foliage. The grand distinguishing features which mark the genera are chiefly found in the form and position of the theca, and the structure of the calyptra, or veil. Our space will only allow of our slightly touching on a few of these variations, and those who are disposed to study the subject of mosses to a greater length, are referred to the Muscologia Britannica" of Drs. Hooker and Taylor, and other works which bear directly on the topic; but we may adduce a few instances of the distinctions to be found in some of the commonest genera. 283-2 285 282. SPHAGNUM. 1 so large, as wholly to cover and conceal the theca, looking like an extinguisher placed over a candle. This species grows or wall-tops, and appears with the screw wall-moss, and the pretty cushion-moss (Grimmia pulvinata), very early in the season. This latter is called by children "pincushion-moss," because. when covered with its fruit, it looks not unlike a cushion stuck with small pins. It has an oval theca, the fruit-stalk is rather short and curved, the lid conical, and the calyptra in the form of a mitre. The capsule of Andrea is provided with valves, and opens with longitudinal clefts, whilst Phascum, and others, 284 282 283-1 have persistent lids. In some of the genera the veil is irregularly rent, in others it is perfect; in some it has the form of a mitre, whilst others are beautifully plaited at the base. The differences in the leaves, growth, etc., of the va rious kinds are innumerable; yet, though the parts differ from each other, the general characteristics which distinguish mosses from plants of every other tribe are so marked and peculiar, that no one need be at a loss to know a moss from any other individual of the vegetable kingdom. Mosses select very various, in some cases singular habitats; one species is found only on the highest Scotch mountains; another only in a bog near Cork. One very remarkable one grows on the perpendicular face of the white chalk cliffs in Kent and Sussex; others are confined to calcareous rocks, whilst some, as Cinclidotus fontanaloides (Fig. 285), will only live beneath the water, or where the spray and dash of the waterfall keeps them continually moistened. There is one kind almost sure to spring up where anything has been burnt on the ground, especially where charcoal has been made, whence its French name, La Charbonière. Hooker tells us that most species of Splachnum are found only on the dung of animals, particularly of that of oxen or foxes. "One of these, Splachnum angusta. tum," he says, "which is commonly met with on dung, we once saw growing vigorously on the foot of an old stocking near the summit of Ingleborough, Yorkshire; the same was also found by a friend of ours covering the half-decayed hat of a traveller who had perished on Mount Saint Bernard; and the same was, if we mistake not, found by Captain Parry in Melville Island, vege tating on the bleached skuil of a musk ox." 283-1, 2, THECA OF SPHAGNUM. 284. ENCALYPTA OR EXTINGUISHER MOSS-1, THE PLANT; 2, THECA; 3, CALYPTRA, 285. CINCLIDOTUS FONTANALOIDES. In the Sphagnum (Fig. 282), those pale whitish mosses which carpet the ground in bogs, the theca is sessile, that which looks like a fruit-stalk being in fact a continuation of the receptacle, and its form is that of a little cup, the mouth of which is unCovered. In the Bartramia, the theca is sub-globose, and seated on a terminal fruit-stalk-this has a double fringe, the outer of sixteen teeth; the inner a membrane divided into sixteen segments, each of which is cleft into two parts, and the calyptra is divided in half. The Polytrichum, or hair-moss (Fig. 281), has a double peristome, or fringe, the outer of thirty-two, or sixty-four incurved teeth, placed at equal distances; the inner a thick membrane connected with the outer teeth. The veil of this is also divided in half. The Encalypta, or extinguishermoss (Fig. 284), has a terminal fruit-stalk, and its calyptra is This is no doubt that species of moss which the old herbalist, Gerard, calls Muscus ex Cranco Humano, or moss from the human skull. "This kind of moss," says he, "is found upon the skulls or bare scalps of men and women lying long in charnelhouses, or other places, where the bones of men and women are kept together; it groweth very thicke, white like unto the short moss on the trunkes of old oakes; it is thought to be a singular remedy against the falling evil, and the chin cough in children, if it be powdered and given in sweet wine for certain daies together." LESSONS IN LATIN.-XLI. DEVIATIONS IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION (continued). 6. Perfect in -1; Supine in -SUM. a. The stem ends in d or t. 1. Cando, found in compounds; as, accendo, accendere, accendi, accensum, to kindle, to inflame. ii. Cudo, cudere, cudi, cusum, to forge. ii. Edo, ĕdere, edi, csum, to eat. will be inflamed with the love of life. 12. Thou canst not be trus long as thy mind is covered with error. 13. He was carried into t 14. They will be carried to those coasts. 15. The general tre defended the city. 16. The city will be well defended by the ci 17. The colonies of Britain lay spread in all parts of the world. 7. Perfect with Reduplication. The reduplication in the verbs, the first vowel of whose is i, o, or u, consists in the repetition of the first conscar the stem, together with that vowel; in the rest, howeve iv. Fendo, found in compounds; as, defendo, defendere, consists in the repetition of the first consonant of the stem to defendi, defensum, to defend, protect. v. Fŏdio, fodere, fōdi, fossum, to dig. vi. Fendo, fudere, füdi, fusum, to pour out. vii. Mando, mandere, mandi, mansum, to chew. viii. Pando, pandere, pandi, pansum, and passum, to spread out, to open. ix. Prehendo, prehendere, prehendi, prehensum, to lay hold of. x. Scando, scandere, scandi, scansum, to climb, mount. Compounds are in scendo, scendi, scensum; as, ascendo, to get up to. xi. Sido, sidere, sēdi (no supine), to sit down, to sink. Compounds are in sido, sidere, sedi, sessum; as, consido, to set one's self down. xii. Strido, stridere, stridi (no supine), to crack, hiss. xiii. Verto, vertere, verti, versum, to turn. gether with e. The compounds have, in the perfect, no red cation; except those from curro, I run; disco, I lears; an posco, I demand. i. Cado, cadere, cecídi, casum, to fall, happen. Compound in cido, cidere, cidi, casum, thus: occido, I go down, die ; inno I fall on (E. R. incident); recido, I fall back; the rest va the supine; as, concido, concidere, concidi, to fall together. ii. Cædo, cædere, cecidi, cæsum, to cut, to kill. Compon are in cido, cidere, cidi, cisum; as, occido, I put to death. iii. Cano, canere, cecini, cantum, to sing. Compounds cino, cinere, cinui; so concino, to sing together; and oce sing inauspiciously; the rest are without perfect and supina iv. Curro, currerc, cucurri, cursum, to run. Most of the e pounds in the perfect have, but oftener have not, the rep xiv. Fido, fidere, fisus sum, to trust; so confidere, to confide; cation. diffidere, to distrust. b. The stem ends in l or r. IV. Vello, vellere, velli, vulsum, to pluck. Convello has in the perfect convelli; but avello and evello have avelli, evelli, and (seldom) avulsi, evulsi. xvi. Psallo, psallere, psalli (no supine), to play on the lyre. xvii. Sallo, sallere (no perfect), salsum, to salt. xviii. Verro, verrere, verri, versum, to sweep, clean. xix. Viso, visere, visi (visum, from video), to visit. In these verbs, the vowel of the stem, when short, becomes long in the perfect. Two verbs form apparent exceptions: Fi(n) do, findere, fidi, fissum, to split (so the compounds); sci(n)do, scindere, scidi, scissum, to separate (so the compounds). But these two verbs originally had the reduplication. It is the same with the compound percello, percellere, percŭli, perculsum, to strike through. VOCABULARY. Egritudo (æger), -Inis, | Effodere, to dig out. f., sickness, grief. Antiquitus, anciently. Colonia, -, f., a colony. Comprehendere, to take in, comprehend. Confodere, to pierce. Conspectus, -üs, m., a view. Diffundere, to spread abroad. Digerere, to divide, digest. Epigramma, -ătis, an epigram, something written on a tomb. Effundere, to pour out, to throw of (horseback) [compare the slang term to spill]. Exedere, to eat away, днаш. Furor, -ōris, m., rage. Incendere, to set on fire. Inscribere (with dat.), to inscribe, engrave. Lacerare, to tear, mangle. Liquefacere, to make into a liquid. Nuntius, -i, m., messenger. v. Disco, discere, didici (no supine, but disciturus), to so the compounds, as perdisco, perdiscere, perdidici, thoroughly. vi. Fallo, fallere, fefelli, falsum, to deceive; fallit escapes me, I am not aware, I am unconscious. The par falsus, false, is mostly employed as an adjective; comp refello, refellere, refelli (no supine), to refute. vii. (Pango) pangere, pepigi, pactum, to conclude a m The present, with this meaning, is supplied by pacise pango, in the sense I strike, fasten, has panxi (seldon panctum (pactum, E. R. pact). Compounds, pinga? pegi, pactum; as, compingo, I put together; depanga and repango, to set into (without the perfect). viii. Parco, parcere, peperci, parsum (with dat.), t ix. Pario, părĕre, pepĕri, partum, to bear, bring for acquire; P. F., pariturus; ova parere, to lay eggs. x. Pello, pellere, pepuli, pulsum, to drive. Compon apello, pellere, puli, pulsum; as, expello, I drive out. Offundere, to pour against, spread. Pervěhi, to be carried through or to. Procudere, to forge, coin. Proficere, to benefit. Velis passis (ablative absolute), in full sail. Velum, -i, n., a sail. Vetustas, -ätis, f., old age. EXERCISE 155.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 5. 1. Constat Tyriorum colonias pæne toto orbe terrarum diffusas fuisse. 2. In morte portum nobis paratum esse et perfugium putemus (subjunctive for imperative). 3. Quo utinam velis passis pervehi liceat! 4. Hannibal patriam defensum ex Italia revocatus est. Nihil proficiunt præcepta, quamdiu menti error offusus est. 6. Beate vivendi cupiditate incensi emnes sumus. 7. Ingens nummorum numerus hoc anno procusus est. 8. Egritudo animum meum laceravit, exédit, planeque confecit! 9. Epigrammatis, monumento inscripti, literæ vetustate exesæ erant. 10. Milites urbem, ab hostibus oppug natam, acerrime defenderunt. 11. Antiquitus magna auri argentique vis in Hispaniâ est effossa. 12. Milites furore capti, ducem confode runt. 13. Equus repente corruit, consulemque lapsum super caput effudit. EXERCISE 156.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. Wilt thou turn thy skill in (of) speaking to the destruction of thy country? 2. I will turn my skill in speaking to the benefit of all. 3. He has turned his skill in speaking to the salvation and preservation of his country. 4. The traitor being taken will be put to death before the eyes of the citizens. 5. Take care thy horse do not fall and throw thee on thy head. 6. Will the soldiers run their general through? 7. This book is eaten by age. 8. The Queen will coin a large amount of money. 9. The messenger lacerated my mind. 10. My mind was torn by the view of my husband's death. 11. The old and the young xi. Pendo, pendere, pependi, pensum, to cause to hm' weigh, to pay, to suffer. Compounds are without redapatin as, appendo, appendi, I hang to, or fasten on. xii. Posco, poscere, poposci (no supine), to ask, demans, the compounds, as, exposco, expoposci, to get by asking. xiii. Pungo, pungere, pupŭgi, punctum, to prick. Compon in perf., punxi; as, interpungo, to place a point between. xiv. Tango, tangere, tetigi, tactum, to touch. Compo are in tingo, tingere, tigi, tactum; as, attingo, to touch up xv. Tendo, tendere, tetendi, tentum, and tensum, te str tendere insidias, to place in ambush. Compounds are reduplication, and with the supine in tentum; as, conter contendere, contendi, contentum, to strive; but retentum retensum, extentum and extensum, are used; neverthes detendo and ostendo have only detensum and oster: ostentus is the same as obtentus, as, ostentus soli, qused i the sun. xvi. Tundo, tundere, tutŭdi, tunsum, to pound, beat. C pounds are in tundo, tudi; as, contundo, to pound together, a beat in pieces, to weary. The two ensuing verbs have the reduplication in the pre and retain it throughout: bibo, bibere, bibi, bibitum, to d in the same way, the compounds; sisto, sistere, stiti, ste (status, set fast), to place. Monosyllabic compounds of ca belong to this class; as, addo, addidi, additum, to add, EXERCISE 157.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Et discas oportet, et quod didicisti, agendo confirmes. 2. Male parta male dilabuntur. 3. Ut hirundines æstivo tempore præsto sunt, frigore pulsa recedunt, ita falsi amici sereno vitæ tempore præsto sunt, simulatque hiemem fortunæ viderint, devolant omnes. 4. Quid casurum sit, incertum est. 5. Quod cuique obtigit, id quisque teneat. 6. Clitum amicum senem et innoxium a se occisum esse Alexander dolcbat. 7. Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores, nec sinit ssc feros (eos). 8. Non tam utilitas, parta per amicum, quam amici amor ipse delectat. 9. Hannibalem non fefellit ferocius quam consultius rem hostes gesturos esse. 10. Ex quo (tempore) pecunia in honore fuit, verus rerum honor occidit. 11. Silva vetus cecidit, ferro quam nemo cecidit. 12. Epaminondas fidibus præclare cecinisse dicitur. 13. Cato scribit priscos Romanos in epulis cecinisse ad tibiam clarorum virorum laudes atque virtutes. 14. Datur cohortibus signum, cornuaque ac tube concinuerunt. EXERCISE 158.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 3. How Incredibile memoratu est quam facile Romani et aborigines coaluerint. 6. Quum est concupita pecunia, nec adhibi a continuo ratio, quæ sanet eam cupiditatem, permanat in venas et inhæret in visceribus illud malum. 7. Endymio, nescio quando, in Latmo, Cariæ monte, obdormivit, necdum est experrectus. 8. Oratori abstinendum ese verbis quæ propter vetustatem obsoleverunt. 9. Convaluistine tandem ex morbo, quo tamdiu laborasti? 10. Vulnus meum quod jam consanuisse videbatur, nunc recruduit. EXERCISE 160.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 1. The last day has shone on thee. 2. Has the last day shone on my brother? 3. My father broke into anger at my foolish words. 4. Judges should not break into anger. 5. Between the Romans and the Carthaginians a terrible war broke out. 6. All things have grown old with our enemies. 7. Did you take that bad money for good? 8. I took it without knowing it. 9. I have now found it out, aud shall not pay it for good. 10. The Romans and the aboriginal in habitants soon coalesced. 11. Endymion will fall asleep on the mountain. 12. I have fallen asleep on the pillow. 13. Many words 14. My ardour will not have grown old, many words will grow old. cool down. 15. The wound has broken out afresh. 16. My wounds have not healed. 17. I do not know whether my father's wounds 1. The hen has laid an egg. 2. The hens will lay eggs. many eggs a day (in dies) do your hens lay? 4. Thy mother has borne a son. 5. The general will not spare the public buildings. 6. The soldier, seized with fury, slew his general. 7. Dost thou think that the enemy will spare those who are worn down with age? 8. I know have healed. not whether the enemy will spare the women and children. 9. A truce has been made with the enemy for twenty days. 10. The voices sounded in harmony. 11. The sign having been given, thy brother sang to the lyre the praises of great men. 12. Twenty thousand of our soldiers were slain. 8. Inchoatives. Those verbs are called inchoatives (from the Latin inchoo, I begin) which denote a commencement, or a transition from one state into another, with special reference to the idea conveyed by the roots from which they are severally formed: for example, vetus is old; accordingly the inchoative veterasco means, I grow or become old. Inchoatives are of the third conjugation, and follow the perfect and the supine of their radical verb. i. Inveterasco (radical, inveterare), inveterascere, inveteravi, inveteratum, to grow old. ii. Exardesco (R. ardere), exardescere," exarsi, exarsum, to burst into a flame, to burst into anger, break out. iii. Indolesco (R. dolere), indolescère, indolui, indolĭtum, to feel pain. iv. Revivisco (R. vivěre), reviviscere, revixi, revictum, to live again, to revive. 7. Concupisco (R. cupère), concupiscere, concupivi, concupitum, to desire (E. R. concupiscence). vi. Obdormisco (R. dormire), obdormiscere, obdormivi, obdormitum, to fall asleep. The inchoatives of the obsolete oleo, olěre, olui, to grow, are formed thus: adolesco, adolescère, adolēvi (adultus, as an adjective, grown up, adult), to grow up; exolesco, exolescère, exolēvi (exoletus, as an adj., grown old, worn out, antiquated), to grow out, grow old, become obsolete; inolesco, inolescere, inolevi (no supine), to grow upon, to add to one's growth; obsolesco, obsolescère, obsolēvi, obsoletum, to grow down, become obsolete. Very many inchoatives want the perfect and the supine, as augesco, to increase, from augeo, augere, auxi, auctum. Here may be placed the inchoatives which are derived from substantives or adjectives, as repuerascere, to become a boy again (puer, a boy): only a small part of them form a perfect in -ui, as maturesco, maturescere, maturui, to become ripe (maturus). KEY TO EXERCISES IN LESSONS IN LATIN.-XL. 1. Men, when they have obtained the things which they eagerly desired, often disdain them. 2. Did you hear that the lions roared? 3. Let the war be so begun that nothing else save peace may seem sought after. 4. When in memory you have traced back all antiquity, you will scarcely find three pairs of friends who were ready to lay down their life for one another. 5. Take care you do not decide coucerning the matter before you have carefully searched it out. daughters of Erechtheus eagerly desired death for the life of the citizens. 7. The whole philosophy of the Romans is borrowed from the Greeks. 8. We read that the Romans often sent for their consuls from the plough. 9. The Romans piously observed many sacred rites brought and adopted from foreign nations. EXERCISE 152.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 6. Tho 1. Quis nescit Hannibalem Romanorum aliquando opes attrivisse ? 2. Boni mala nunquam petunt. 3. Id quod adipiscar fastidiam nunquam. 4. Putasne te, pecuniâ acquisitâ, non eam fastiditurum esse. 5. Cave ne contemnas aut fastidias aliquem. 6. Arcesse duces ab aratro. 7. Ne facesse illi homini bono negotium. 8. Mali discipuli præceptoribus optimis negotium facessunt. 9. In bello pacem petimus. 10. In bello pax a nobis petitur. 11. Liberi mei cupide mortcm expetiverunt pro vità meâ. 12. Constat nostros cives in hostem incessuros esse. EXERCISE 153.-LATIN-ENGLISH. 1. Let us be disposed towards our friends in the same manner as they are towards us. 2. Completed labours are pleasant. 3. Virtue alone is in its own power; all things except it are subject to the rule philosophy, is to be preferred to a sinful immortality. 5. The con of fortune. 4. One day spent well, and according to the precepts of sciousness of a well-spent life, and the remembrance of many good deeds, are most agreeable. 6. Xerxes was conquered more by the wisdom of Themistocles, than by the arms of Greece. 7. The enemies having broken the treaty which they had but just made, rushed suddenly into our camp. 8. Pliny read no book from which he did not make extracts. 9. The citizens subdued by the enemies, having every hope of recovering their liberty removed, passed a wretched life. The treaties which were made have been broken by the enemies. 10. The soldiers broke through and scattered the enemies' line. 11. EXERCISE 154.-ENGLISH-LATIN. 4. 1. Fœdus ictum milites vestri rumpent. 2. Hostes perfringentue aciem nostram ? 3. Hostes nunquam copias nostras disjiciant. Improbi miseram vitam transigunt. 5. Putasne improbos vitam miseram transigere ? 6. Rex omnem pacis recuperandæ spem ademit. 7. Excerpe illum librum. 8. Milites nostri, captis armis, impetum facient in hostes. 9. Eodem modo erga senes affici volo, quo erga juvenes. 10. Religio sola in suà potestate est. 11. Deo juvante, quicquid placet sibi ea facere potest. Fable.-The She-goat and the Wolf. A wolf, seeing a she-goat standing upon a lofty rock, said, "Why do you not leave those naked and barren places, and come down hither to the grassy plains which offer you pleasant pasture ?" Το which the she-goat answered, "I have no mind to prefer pleasantness to safety." Fable. The Dog and the Oxen. A dog lay in a manger, and by his barking drove away the oxen from the fodder. To which one of the oxen said, "How great is that envy of yours, that you will not suffer us to eat that food which you yourself are neither willing nor able to take!"—This fable (fabula) shows the true character of envy. HISTORIC SKETCHES.-XLIV. THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA. "AND there being among the Spaniards some who are not only cruel, but very cruel, when a man occasionally wishes to punish a slave, either for some crime that he had committed, or for not having done a good day's work, or for spite that he had towards, him, or for not having extracted the usual quantity of silver or gold from the mine, when he came home at night, instead of giving him supper, he made him undress, if he happened to have a shirt on, and being thrown down on the ground, he had his hands and feet tied to a piece of wood laid across, so permitted under the rule called by the Spaniards the law of Baiona-a law suggested, I think, by some great demon; then with a thong or rope he was beaten, until his body streamed with blood; which done, they took a pound of pitch or a pipkin of boiling oil, and threw it gradually all over the unfortunate victim; then he was washed with some of the country pepper mixed with salt and water. He was thus left on a plank covered over with a cloth, until the master thought he was able again to work. Others dug a hole in the ground and put the man in, upright, leaving only his head out, and left him in all night; the Spanish saying that they have recourse to this cure because the earth absorbs the blood and preserves the flesh from forming any wound, so they get get well sooner. And if any die (which some times happens) through great pain, there is no heavier punishment by law than that the master shall pay another slave to the king." Thus wrote Girolamo Benzoni the Milanese, who, in the year 1541, "started from Milan in the name of God, the sustainer and governor of all the universe," to seek his fortune or whatever might present itself to him in the newly-discovered possessions of the Spaniards across the Atlantic. Benzoni was, to judge from his own account of his travels, a perfectly ingenuous man, who mentioned gravely and without aiming at effect whatever came under his notice, nothing extenuating nor setting down aught in malice. He was not particularly squeamish about what he did or what others did, though he appears to have had what was lacking in the Spanish composition-some of the feelings of the human heart. He is, therefore, a very fair, unprejudiced witness in respect of the Spanish treatment of the Indians, and his testimony is, moreover, abundantly confirmed by that of many others equally disinterested. It is a sad and singular history, that of the conquest and possession of the West Indies and America by the Spaniards. However, it is proposed here simply to give a slight sketch of the Spanish doings in America and the Indies after obtaining possession of them, how they furiously raged together, imagined all sorts of vain things, and how in the end the power was reft from them. The first permanent settlement made in the West was on Haiti, or, as Columbus called it, La Isla Española, of which Bartholomew Columbus was made governor on his brother Christopher's return to Spain. During his administration all went well with the colony, the Indians wondering at the bearded men who had come they knew not from whence with iron tubes from which they hurled lightnings, and by the aid of which they made noises like thunder; but discord sprung up before Christopher's return, the Spaniards ill-used the women, beat the men, and otherwise behaved oppressively; and the Indians having ascertained, by the purely philosophical process of holding a. Spaniard under water for ten minutes, that the new-comers were mortal, rose against them when familiarity had somewhat taken away the dread of them, and killed some of the garrison. So long as Columbus and his brother remained in authority the Indians had tolerable treatment, for the influence of the two, weakened though it was by jealousies and mutinies, which sprang up among the Spaniards, was strong enough to hold the greater part of the adventurers in check; but when Spanish governors came to be in power, and every consideration was sacrificed to the greed for gold, the most merciless demands for life were made in order to supply the slave labour necessary for the working of the mines. So rapid was the loss of life from this cause for the Indians had never been accustomed to such severe work—that in a few years Haiti was all but depopulated, and the Spaniards brought in slaves from the neighbouring islands and from the mainland to fill their place. Porto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica, and all the lesser islands were brought under the yoke; Jamaica, which was densely populated, but which did not yield gold, being made the slave-mart for the gold-seekers, who caught the people as they would have snared so many wild beasts, and shipped them off to the islands where the mines were. Haiti remained for many years the head-quarters of the Spanish Government in the West Indies, but when the attra tions of the mainland of Mexico, Peru, and Chili had dram away many Spaniards, and the negroes imported from Africa began to be more numerous than consorted with the safety d the whites, the island was virtually abandoned, and each seps rate governor of an island or a province received his orders direct from Spain. The Spaniards having spoiled all the islands of the Wet Indies-those which yielded gold for sake of the gold, and those which yielded only slaves for sake of the slaves-turned their attention to the mainland, which hitherto they had not thoroughly explored. Balboa, an independent pioneer, made a settlement on the Isthmus of Darien, and having there learned that on the other side of the isthmus was a kingdom in whic any quantity of gold was to be had for the seeking, sent to Isla Española for reinforcements, and went meantime his self with a small body of men to where the mighty Pacific we first revealed to the eyes of a European. Gathering as much gold as he could get, and which the native chiefs freely gave him. he returned for assistance, not daring with his few friends to draw down the hostility of the wealthy nation which he ander stood was also exceedingly strong. On April 2, 1519, an extensive expedition which had been fitted out in the porta Cuba, and which sailed under the command of Fernando Corta landed on the coast of Yucatan, and was well received by the natives. Cortez immediately formed an entrenched camp, which subsequently became the city of Vera Cruz, and having esta blished himself there began to negotiate for an interview with Montezuma, the emperor of the country. of Whether the Mexicans suspected the character of the wolves who came to them in sheep's clothing; whether the Spaniards. as is most likely, did not refrain from acts of violence eve the beginning of their occupation; or whether it was free for of the firearms which so greatly astonished the people, the Mexicans held back from this proposal. Montezums sent rich presents which only inflamed the greed of the Spaniards, and Cortez, after entering into alliances with tribes discontented with the government, marched inland with 500 foot schiers, fifteen horsemen, and six pieces of cannon. With such a farce he proposed to himself the conquest of a populous and powerful empire. By striking terror into opponents who had never seen a gun fired until now, by artifice, by playing off hostile chiefs one against the other, Cortez marched on, his admiration being excited at every step by the magnificence of the scenery, and his cupidity aroused by the signs which he daily saw of the enormous wealth of the soil. After short sojourns in some of the cities which fell before him like snow before the sun, he ad vanced to the city of Mexico, in the environs of which Monterama came out to meet him in friendly sort, with barbaric but splendid state, and magnificent gifts. The emperor was so gracious and hospitable that Cortez had much difficulty in knowing how even he was to begin playing the villain. The Spaniards were brought into the city, lodged, fed, and clothed, and all that they wanted was supplied to them. Cortez resolved to avail himself of an outrage on some Spaniards on the coast to possess himself of the person of Montezuma. He first complained of the outrage and demanded the punishment of the murderers, who, including a cacique or chief, were brought to Mexico and burned alive as a punishment; but the sufferers having averred, truly or not, that what they had done was by Montezuma's ow order, Cortez seized the emperor, and kept him a prisoner in irons in the Spanish quarters. He wrote to the King of Spain telling him what he had done, and how that he had done it for the better security of the lives of the Spaniards in Mexico, and for the purpose of more effectually bringing the empire under the dominion of the Spanish king. The enormous consignment of gold sent to Europe astonished the Old World folk, and attracted thousands of them across the water. The gold its was spent in attempts to found universal dominion, and i endeavours, continued through many years, to crash out 23 plague the spirit of liberty both in church and state. In Mexico, after the imprisonment of Montezuma, the Mexicans were com pelled to be the slaves of the Spaniards and to work their own gold mines for them. The waste of life became as prodigios as in the West India Islands, and the sufferings of the people so great that the Spanish priests remonstrated, and orders were obtained from the Pope and from the King of Spain for the better treatment of the Indians. But such orders to a man like Cortez were as nothing, and the state of the poor people grew worse and worse. They had resolved at any cost to get rid of their tyrants, when Cortez was called away from the capital to fight a Spanish expedition which had been sent from Cuba, the governor of which thought fit to override the authority of Cortez, and to seek himself to gather where he had not sown. Cortez defeated the expedition, killed its leader, and induced the soldiers to enlist under him. On his return to Mexico city his quarters were assailed by a vast multitude of Mexicans, desperate at the return of their dreadful enemy, and bent on his destruction. In vain did Cortez try everything that skill or valour could dictate, in vain did he bring out Montezuma on the ramparts to quiet the people. Montezuma was killed by a missile flung by one of his own subjects, and Cortez and his followers had to cut their way out of the city. In due time he returned with fresh troops procured from Isla Española, and captured the city; the successor of Montezuma was put to death by slow torture, multitudes of Mexicans were slain, and possession was formally taken of the country as a dependency of Spain. you Twelve years after Cortez had landed at Vera Cruz, Pizarro (in 1531) arrived with a small force on the coast of Peru, and dissembling his object from people who probably did not know what had befallen Mexico, advanced inland, pretending that he would mediate between Huascar and Atahualpa, sons of the late Inca or king, who were striving for the mastery. Atahualpa had the upper hand, and Pizarro managed to get his consent to an interview, at which the intention was to seize the Inca, and hold him as a hostage and as a lever of power. At the meeting the Inca was informed that Alexander VI., Pope of Rome, had given Peru and all the other kingdoms in America to the Spaniards; that the Pope of Rome was lord of the whole earth by virtue of his being vice-gerent of Christ, of whom until this moment the Inca had never heard. Atahualpa was required to acknowledge the supremacy of the King of Spain, and to be baptised into the Christian faith. On the luckless man treating these modest demands with derision, a tumult was raised, a heavy fire of musketry and artillery was opened on the Peruvians, and Atahualpa was seized and loaded with irons. Cruel as had been the conduct of the Spaniards in Mexico, it was very cruel in Peru; the grossest frauds were practised on the natives, who were reduced to the most dreadful form of slavery, and compelled to yield forced labour. Atahualpa was made to pay as ransom a room full of bars of gold, and then, the gold having been received, he was strangled, and his body burned at a stake. Furious dissensions arose among the Spaniards about the division of the spoil; Pizarro was murdered, his murderer succumbing in turn to some other ruffian, and a long period of anarchy and bloody revolution ensued, during which the native Peruvians suffered from each successive ruler. Besides the West Indies, Mexico, Peru, and Chili, the Spaniards did not care for their other possessions in America, which fell in course of time under the dominion of the English, French, and Dutch, and include at the present day the whole of the United States of America. What of all they once held do the Spaniards retain at this moment? Cuba only, and Porto Rico. Ruthless, selfish government like that they set up, practices subversive of all good such as they practised, could bring about but one conclusion. Even in Benzoni's time (1550), the demoralisation was such that "many Spaniards prophesied for certain that the island (Isla Española) in a short time will fall entirely into the hands of these blacks" (imported Africans), and such has been its fate after many and deadly struggles between Spaniards, French, and English for the mastery there. When the news of the French Revolution in 1789 reached the island, the French being then masters, the population rose en masse, and in the awful massacre of San Domingo repaid the wrongs of centuries. Jamaica was taken from Spain by commanders sent by Cromwell, and since that time successive conquests have stripped her of all but Cuba and Porto Rico, the sole remaining relics of their once vast American possessions. Mexico, Peru, and Chili remained under the curse of Spanish rule till quite recent times; but the bursting of the old bands of tyranny in Europe by Napoleon Bonaparte loosened them indi rectly in America. As soon as it was known in Mexico (in 1808) that the Spanish Bourbons were overthrown, the vicercy called on the people to support King Ferdinand, but when they rose to do so the Spanish colonists resented their interference, though it was on their own behalf. "No native American shall participate in the government so long as there is a mule-driver in La Mancha, or a cobbler in Castile, to represent Spanish ascendancy." In this spirit the Spaniards in Mexico conducted themselves, and the result was that after three formidable insurrections, bloodily suppressed, Iturbide, a native Mexican, so gathered up the national party into his hands that he drove the Spaniards out, and received on the 27th of November, 1821, the surrender of the capital on condition that the Spaniards should forthwith leave the country. After passing through a dreadful ordeal analogous to the above, Peru and Chili, making common cause, threw off the Spanish yoke, and on the 26th of February, 1826, compelled the surrender of Callao, the last foothold of the Spaniards on the territories won for them by Cortez and Pizarro. LESSONS IN GERMAN.-L. IN this lesson we commence Part II. of our Lessons in German. The sections in this Part, which are distinguished by the sign § in all references made to them in Part I., will be found to furnish a complete and systematic Grammar of the German Language, including its Etymology and Syntax, with examples and extracts from the best German writers. § 1.-ETYMOLOGY. Etymology regards words as individuals; discloses their origin and formation; classifies them according to signification; and shows the various modifications which they undergo in the The inflection of all course of declension and conjugation. parts of speech, except the verb, is, in grammar, called declension; the regular arrangement of the moods, tenses, numbers, persons, and participles of a verb, is called Conjugation; in a general way, however, all words capable of inflection are said to be declinable. The indeclinable parts of speech are often called § 2.-DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. Particles. (1.) In respect to derivation, all German words are divisible into three classes:-Primitives, Derivatives, and Compounds. (2.) The Primitives, which are also called roots or radicals, are all verbs; forming the basis of what are now generally called the irregular verbs, and of about fifty or sixty others, which were once irregular in conjugation, but are so no longer. They are also all monosyllables, and are seen in the crude form (so to speak) by merely dropping the suffix (en) of the infinitive mood; thus :-Bint(en), to bind; schließ (en), to close; fang(en), to catch. (3.) From the primitives, sometimes with, sometimes without, any change in or addition to the crude form, comes a numerous train of derivatives, chiefly nouns and adjectives. Thus, from bind(en), "to bind," we get ter Band, the volume, and ter Bunt, the league, where the derivatives are produced The derivative is, also, often distinby a mere vowel change. guished by a mere euphonic or orthographic termination; changing the form, indeed, but in no wise affecting the sense. The terminations employed in this way are er, el, en, e, de, te, and et; thus, from sprech (en), "to speak," comes die Sprache, speech, language. In some cases, moreover, in forming derivatives, the insignificant syllable ge is prefixed; as:-Gewiß, sure, certain; ter Gesang, the song. (4.) But there is another and a most extensive class of derivatives, sometimes called secondary derivatives, formed by the union of radical* words with suffixes that are significant: thus, from beilig, "holy, sacred," we get, by adding en, the verb heili The suffixes of this class gen, "to make holy, to consecrate." (the significant ones) are, however, most of them, used in forming nouns and adjectives. They will be found explained under those heads respectively. Several of them are exactly the same in form as the terminations which are often added to primary deriFrom these (that is, from the merely orthographic end. vatives. ings) the significant suffixes are to be carefully distinguished. The word radical, however, in this place, is designed to indicate any word capable of assuming a suffix. In this loose sense the word is often employed for the sake of convenience. |