another, a second may be brighter, and a third the brightest of all. Adjectives, therefore, though they have neither Gender nor Number, nor yet Case, have three Degrees of Comparison, viz.:

1. The Positive: which gives the word in its simple form; as bright:

2. The Comparative: formed from the Positive by the addition of -er; as bright-er :

3. The Superlative: formed from the Positive by the addition of -est; as bright-est.

102. The Superlative may also be formed from the Comparative by changing r into s and adding t, as dark-er, dark-es, dark-es-t.

§. This second mode of forming the Superlative appears, at first sight, to be both complex and superfluous. The following facts, however, will show that it is neither. Although it is quite true that, by adding -est to the Positive, a Superlative can be formed, it is by no means certain that such is the process by which it actually was formed.

In the oldest language of the class to which the English belongs, the Comparatives themselves ended in z; so that ald-iza, bat-iza, sut-iza, &c., are the original forms of what was afterwards alt-iro, bets-iro, and suats-iro, and what is now old-er, bett-er, and sweet-er. Considering the affinity between the sounds of z and s, it is not too much to say that the Comparative degree originally ended in -s. Again, whilst many languages have a Comparative degree without a Superlative, there is no such thing as a Superlative without a Comparative. Putting these facts together, it has been held, that, in the languages akin to the English, the Superlative is formed, not directly from the Positive, but indirectly from the Comparativeand that at a time when the latter ended in -z, or -s.

103. When the Positive ends in a short vowel, followed by a single consonant, the consonant is doubled; as red, redder, reddest; thin, thinner, thinnest.

104. When the Positive ends in -y, the Comparative and Superlative end in i-er, and i-est; as holy, holi-er, holi-est.

105. When the Positive ends in -ng, the g, though

not heard in the simple word, is distinctly sounded in the Comparative and Superlative. We say long, long-ger, long-gest; not long, long-er, long-est.

106. Good and bad have neither comparative nor superlative, worse and better no positive, forms.

§. A little consideration shows the nature of the foregoing rule. The Comparatives and Superlatives of good and bad, if they existed at all, would be gooder and goodest, badder and baddest. Yet it is well known that no such words occur in the language. It is also well known that there is no such word as bet, of which better could be the Comparative.

Worse has not even the ordinary ending in -er.

As far, however, as meaning is concerned, better is the Comparative of good, and worse of bad. The words, however, are different, and as neither is derived from the other, nor yet from any common source, there is no etymological connection between them. Such connection as there is, is logical.

The words under notice (and there are others like them) are each defective, though defective in a different manner. What one wants the other supplies.

107. In Anglo-Saxon the following words, along with some others, changed their vowels in the Comparative and Superlative degrees :

In the present English the words elder and eldest, from old, do the same.

108. Late has two Comparatives, latter and later; also two Superlatives, latest and last.

109. More, from the obsolete Positive moe, would more correctly be written mo-er.

110. Nether is from an obsolete Positive, viz. nith = low.

111. The true form of the word near is neah. The

h, however, has been changed into -r, upon the principle which leads some persons to say idear instead of idea. Hence near-er is an exceptionable form.

The Anglo-Saxon was nyrre.

112. Next is the Superlative of nigh; being a contraction for nighest.

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113. Farther is from far distant; whilst further is from fore in front. Former is also from fore. First is from the same root.

114. Worse and worst are words of which the origin is doubtful.

115. The words inmost, outmost, upmost, midmost, foremost, hindmost, utmost, are doubly superlative.

116. The words nethermost, uppermost, uttermost, undermost, outermost, and innermost, are not only doubly superlative, but comparative as well.

§. These last two statements require explanation. The common statement concerning words like utmost is, that they are compounds, formed by the addition of the word most. This, however, is more than doubtful; inasmuch as the Anglo-Saxon language presents us with the following forms :

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Besides these there are, in the other allied languages, words like fruma first, aftuma = last, miduma = middle; in all of which the m that appears in the last syllable of each has nothing to do with the word most.

Upon this basis, however, was formed, in Anglo-Saxon, a regular superlative in the usual manner; viz. by the addition of -st; as afte-m-est, fyr-m-est, late-m-est, six-m-est, yfe-m-est, ute-m-est.

Hence, in the present English, the different parts of words like upmost come from different quarters. The m is the m in the Anglo-Saxon words innema, &c. ; whilst the -st is the st in brightest, &c. In separating, then, such words as midmost into its component parts, we should write-

§. In nethermost, &c. the syllable m-ost is added to a word already ending in er; that is, to a word already marked with the sign of the comparative degree.

§. Former (for-m-er) is a comparative from the Anglo-Saxon superlative forma (for-m-a).

117. Certain words ending in -th and -ness are called Abstract Substantives or Abstracts; as length, happi

ness.

118. Abstract Substantives have their corresponding Adjectives. Length is formed from long; happiness from happy. They denote a quality; of which quality they are the names.

119. Adjectives are no true names at all; but words which suggest a name. They become true names when converted into Abstract Substantives.

VERBALS.

120. Certain words, like hunter and cleansing, are called Verbal Substantives or Verbals.

121. Every Verbal has its corresponding Verb. Hunter is formed from hunt by the addition of -er; cleansing from cleanse by the addition of -ing.

§. In form these Verbals are for the most part identical with the Participle; and there is no want of writers who treat them as such. Hunting, for instance, is made the Participle of hunt; rising, of rise. That the resemblance, however, is accidental, and that the two forms have no original connection, becomes clear upon a little consideration.

In the first place there are such plural forms as the risings of the north; the huntings of the hare; the watchings and wakings of an anxious man.

Secondly, the Anglo-Saxon form of the Substantive was not -ing, but ung; whilst that of the Participle was -nd. The Participle of clansian to cleanse, was clansiand; the equivalent to the word cleansing was clansung.

122. The Verbals in -ing denote actions and results. Hunting is the act performed by a hunter; sleeping the deed done by one who sleeps.

123. Instead of the Verbal we may use the Verb

preceded by to-Rising early is good for the health; or, To rise early is good for the health.

124. The Verbals in -er denote agents; a hunter being one who hunts; a sleeper one who sleeps.

125. The Verbals in -er are true English words; and they must be distinguished from those in -or, which are derived from the Latin. Words like baker, singer, fisher, &c., are English, words like actor are Latin.

§. As a general rule the forms in -or are masculine: i.e. they give us the names of men rather than women. An actor is a man who acts; a female who acts being an actress.

Now, words in -ess, like words in or, are of Latin origin ; either directly or indirectly. The Latin termination is -ix, which, in French, becomes -ice. In Anglo-Saxon it has no existence at all; so that Feminines in -ess match masculines in -or, not masculines in -er. The French equivalent to or is -eur: so that actor becomes acteur.

It is true, indeed, that in some few cases we attach the syllable -ess to words of English origin. So accurate a writer as Ben Jonson uses the word huntress.

Queen and huntress chaste and fair,

Now the sun is lain to sleep,

Seated in thy silver chair,

State with wonted splendour keep.
Hesperus invokes thy light,
Goddess exquisitely bright.

CYNTHIA'S REVELS.

The word, however, is exceptionable; as are all words (though there are many of them in the language) which are made up out of two languages. Let any one write bakor, singor, fishor, and form from them such words as bakress, singress, fishress, and he will see that the combination is, to say the least of it, unfamiliar.

§. We continue our observations on these words in -ess. In actor and actress there is a change from one syllable to another.

But this is not always the case. There are many masculines in which no such syllable as or is to be found, and where the feminine is formed by the addition, rather than the substitution, of -ess. Such are- -Peer, Duke, Marquis, for the Masculine; Peeress, Duchess, Marchioness, for the Feminine.

§. Some notice of the forms of -er is now required.

And first, we ask of what gender are they? The answer to this